View source for Ford Model A engine

{{Short description|Automobile engine}}

{{Infobox automobile engine
| name          = Ford Model A engine
| image         = 1931_Ford_Model_A_roadster_engine.JPG
| manufacturer  = [[Ford Motor Company]]
| configuration = [[inline-four engine|Inline-4]]
| production    = 1927&ndash;1931
| predecessor   = [[Ford Model T engine]]
| successor     = [[Ford Model B engine]]
| bore          = {{convert|3.876|in|mm|2|abbr=on}}
| stroke        = {{convert|4.125|in|mm|1|abbr=on}}
| displacement  = {{convert|200.5|cuin|L|1|abbr=on}}  
| length        =
| diameter      =
| width         =
| height        = 
| weight        = approx. {{cvt|350|lb|kg}} with radiator and water
| block         = [[Cast iron]], [[monobloc engine|monobloc design]]
| head          = Cast iron, detachable
| valvetrain    = [[Side valve]] ([[flathead engine|flathead]])
| supercharger  =
| turbocharger  =
| fuelsystem    = Gravity feed, [[Zenith Carburetor Company|Zenith]] (predominantly) and other carburetors
| fueltype      = [[gasoline]]
| oilsystem     = gravity feed; dip-and-splash
| coolingsystem = [[Radiator (engine cooling)|Water-cooled]], circulating pump and radiator
| power         = {{convert|40|hp|kW|1|abbr=on}} brake
| specpower     = {{convert|24.03|hp|kW|1|abbr=on}} SAE
| torque        = {{cvt|128|lbft|Nm}} at 1,000 RPM
| compression   = 4.22:1
| fuelcon       =
| specfuelcon   =
| oilcon        =
}}

The '''Ford Model A engine''' – primarily developed for the popular [[Ford Model A (1927–1931)|Ford Model A]] automobile (1927–1931, 4.8 million built<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="brief_history_2018_08_23_blueprintengines_com">{{Cite web |date=August 23, 2018 |title=The Ford Model A: A Brief History |url=https://blueprintengines.com/blogs/news/the-ford-model-a-a-brief-history |access-date=November 7, 2022 |website=BluePrint Engines}}</ref>)<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org">{{Cite web |title=Introduction – The Basics |url=https://model-a-ford.org/top-page-1/resources/technical-information-indexes/the-basics/ |access-date=November 7, 2022 |website=Model A Restorers Club}}</ref> – was one of the most mass-produced automobile engines of the 1920s and 1930s, widely used in automobiles, trucks,<ref name="model_aa_truck_autoevolution_com">{{Cite web |last=Florea |first=Ciprian |date=January 18, 2022 |title=1931 Ford Model AA Truck Spent 30 Years in a Barn, Engine Refuses to Die |url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/1931-ford-model-aa-truck-spent-30-years-in-a-barn-engine-refuses-to-die-179426.html |access-date=November 27, 2022 |website=autoevolution.com}}</ref> tractors,<ref name="on_the_farm_mafca_com">{{Cite web |date=January 6, 2020 |title=Gallery - Model A's on the Farm |url=https://www.mafca.com/gallery_farm.html |access-date=November 7, 2022 |website=Model A Ford Club of America}}</ref><ref name="tractor_kit_farmcollector_com">{{Cite web |last=Kitts |first=Ronnie |date=March 30, 2010 |title=Model A Ford Turned Tractor: The Sears Thrifty Farmer Tractor Conversion Kit |url=https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/model-a-ford-turned-tractor-the-sears-thrifty-farmer-tractor-conversion-kit/ |access-date=November 7, 2022 |website=Farm Collector}}</ref> and a wide variety of other vehicles and machinery.<ref name="ford_model_a_ford_com">{{Cite web |title=The 1928 Ford Model A |url=https://corporate.ford.com/articles/history/the-1928-ford-model-a.html |access-date=November 7, 2022 |website=[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]}}</ref><ref name="on_the_farm_mafca_com" /><ref name="tk3_tks_tanks_encyclopedia_com">[https://www.tanks-encyclopedia.com/ww2/polish/polish_tankette_TK3.php "TK-3 and TKS"], ''Tank Encyclopedia,'' The Online Tank Museum, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="pietenpol_waaamuseum_org">[https://www.waaamuseum.org/collections/airplanes/195-Pietenpol-Sky-Scout "Pietenpol Sky Scout"], [[Western Antique Aeroplane and Automobile Museum]] (WAAAM), retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>

A four-cylinder, carbureted, gasoline-fueled, piston engine, derived from the [[Ford Model T engine]], the Ford Model A engine – with a bigger bore and stroke, and higher compression ratio – was twice as powerful as the Model T engine.<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org">[https://model-a-ford.org/top-page-1/resources/technical-information-indexes/beginner-fundamentals/ "Model A Primer"], Model A Restorers Club (MARC), retrieved December 6, 2022</ref> Some derivatives, with improvements, were produced until 1958.<ref name="evolution_modelaengine_com">Burtz, Terry: [http://www.modelaengine.com/02-evolution-of-the-model-a-ford-engine.html "Evolution of the Model A Ford Engine,"] ''Re-Engineering the Model A Engine,'' retrieved November 7, 2022</ref> Tens of thousands of the original design remain active even in the 21st century.<ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org">Davisson, Budd (engineer): [https://static1.squarespace.com/static/554192cee4b0dcf3b984d907/t/61ac34e4a314e40c8d2ce8e7/1638675686160/96-101_ShopTalk_2201_v1.pdf "A Modern Model A Motor: Back to the Future,"] January 2022, ''Sport Aviation,'' [[Experimental Aircraft Association]] (EAA), duplicated at Static1.SquareSpace.com, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref><ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com">{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Kyle |date=November 6, 2020 |title=The Model A Ford is the perfect entry to prewar ownership |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/market-trends/valuation/the-model-a-ford-is-the-perfect-entry-to-prewar-driving/ |access-date=December 17, 2023 |website=[[Hagerty (insurance)|Hagerty]]}}</ref><ref name="history_1998_05_15_theautochannel">[https://www.theautochannel.com/news/writers/bhagin/1998/fs9820.html "History: Model A Ford Is 70 Years Old,"] May 15, 1998, [[The Auto Channel]], retrieved December 8, 2022</ref>

== Design and development ==
=== Development and production history ===
The Ford Model A engine was an evolution of the [[Ford Model T engine]], but with double the power. It was developed in secret at Ford's Rouge Plant, in Michigan, and unveiled – with the [[Ford Model A (1927–1931)|Ford Model A]] automobile – December 2, 1927. The first Model A engine was completed earlier, October 20, 1927, and eventually installed in a 1928 Model A Fordor sedan, which [[Henry Ford]] gave to his friend, inventor [[Thomas A. Edison]]. There was immediate market demand for the Model A, but by January 1, 1928, just 5,275 Model A engines had been built – some not yet installed in a chassis, let alone shipped to a dealer.<ref name="ford_history_mafca_org">[https://www.mafca.com/ref_history.html "Ford History,"]  Model A Ford Club of America, retrieved December 8, 2022</ref><ref name="evolution_plucks329s_org">[http://www.plucks329s.org/40hb.htm "The 40 Horse Block - Evolution of the A-6015,"] Steve Plucker Ford Model A Research Project, retrieved December 8, 2022</ref>

However, by February 1929, production of the engines reached 1,000,000 units. At the end of Model A production in March 1932, 4,849,340 Model As had been built. (Several hundred thousand Model AA trucks had also been built, typically with the same Model A engine.) Model A historian Steve Plucker, using Ford company records, calculates that 4,830,806 production engines were built between October 1927 and November 1931.<ref name="ford_history_mafca_org"/><ref name="evolution_plucks329s_org" />

All Model A engines built in the U.S. were built in the Rouge plant, however some were built at Ford plants in Canada and Europe. During that time, the Model A and AA engine cylinder block (part number A-6010), went through various external and internal changes.<ref name="ford_history_mafca_org"/><ref name="evolution_plucks329s_org" />

The Model A was replaced by the 1932 [[Ford Model B (1932)|Ford Model B]], with an updated 4-cylinder engine, and by the 1932 [[Ford Model 18]], with its new [[Ford V8]] engine.<ref name="ford_history_mafca_org"/><ref name="evolution_plucks329s_org" />

=== Basic design and characteristics ===

Like the Model T engine, the Model A engine was a [[Water cooling|water-cooled]] [[Cam-in-block#L-head|L-head]] inline-four (four vertical cylinders in line), [[monobloc engine|"cast-en-bloc"]]-type [[piston engine]].<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /> It had a displacement of {{convert|200.5|CID|L|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /> (compared to the Model T's {{convert|177|CID|L|1|abbr=on}}).<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="Cheetham">{{cite book|last1=Cheetham|first1=Craig|title=Vintage Cars - The Finest Prewar Automobiles|date=2004|publisher=Grange Books|location=Rochester, United Kingdom|isbn=1840136359|pages=31}}</ref>

This engine provides {{convert|40|hp|kW PS|abbr=on}} ([[brake horsepower]]<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="engine_modelagarage_com">[https://modelagarage.com/engine/break-in/ "Engine"] (specifications and illustration), Model A Garage, Inc., retrieved December 2, 2022</ref>) at 2,200 RPM<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="Cheetham" /> – but at 1,000 RPM produces substantially more [[torque]]: {{cvt|128|lbft|Nm}}.<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="Cheetham" /> SAE-rated horsepower is 24.03, and compression ratio is 4.22:1.<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="engine_modelagarage_com" />

The [[cylinder bore]] and [[piston stroke]] were also enlarged from the original Model T engine; they measured {{cvt|3.876x4.125|in|mm}}.<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="tech_mech_specs_conceptcarz_com">{{cite web | url=https://www.conceptcarz.com/s5912/ford-model-a.aspx | title=1931 Ford Model A technical and mechanical specifications }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.motorbiscuit.com/1929-ford-model-a-is-not-what-it-seems/ | title=This 1929 Ford Model a is Not What It Seems | date=8 December 2020 }}</ref> Cylinder firing order is 1-2-4-3.<ref name="engine_modelagarage_com" />

[[File:1930_Ford_Model_A_-_engine_-_Flickr_-_dave_7.jpg|thumb|left|Ford Model A engine, left side]]
The engine has a 5-quart oil capacity. The crankcase is filled through an engine fill/breather tube mounted on the engine's left side. Modern 10W30 oils are recommended for newly rebuilt engines.<ref name="engine_break_in_modelagarage_com">[https://modelagarage.com/engine/break-in/ "Engine Break-in Instructions,"] Model A Garage, Inc., retrieved December 2, 2022</ref> The recommended oil change interval is 500 miles.<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" />

=== Comparison to modern designs ===

The Model A's engine has three main bearings (versus five found in modern 4-cylinder engines), and they are smaller diameter, and longer, than bearings in a modern engine. The bearings are poured [[Babbitt (alloy)|babbitt]] bearings, rather than modern replaceable insert bearings.<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="differences_modelaengine_com">Burtz, Terry: [http://www.modelaengine.com/01-differences-between-model-a-and-modern-design-practices.html "Differences between Model A and modern design practices,"] ''Re-Engineering the Model A Engine,'' retrieved November 7, 2022</ref><ref name="engine_block_technical_mafca_com">[https://www.mafca.com/tqa_e_block.html "Block"], updated October 29, 2022, "Engine," ''Technical Q&A,'' Model A Ford Club of America, Inc. (MAFCA), retrieved November 7, 2022</ref><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

Rather than a full pressure oil system typical of a modern engine, the Model A engine's oil system lubricates the main bearings by gravity feed, and lubricates the piston connecting rods by them dipping into the oil during motion.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="differences_modelaengine_com" /><ref name="engine_block_technical_mafca_com" /><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

A Model A engine has no crankshaft counterweights.<ref name="differences_modelaengine_com" /><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /> There are no cam bearings.<ref name="engine_block_technical_mafca_com" /> The Model A engine lacks valve seats, versus steel ring seats typical in a modern engine.<ref name="differences_modelaengine_com" />  The engine has a rather restricted intake port design, as compared to a modern engine.<ref name="differences_modelaengine_com" />

== Equipment, accessories, and drivetrain ==
=== Intake, injection, and fuel ===
[[File:1930_Ford_Model_A_woody_panel_van_(12404833424).jpg|thumb|left|1930 Ford Model A woody panel van engine. An updraft carburetor feeds intake manifold on engine's right side. Linkages control throttle, mixture, and choke.]]
Normally, the Model A engine was supplied with a [[Zenith Carburetor Company|Zenith]] one-barrel, up-draft, float-type [[carburetor]], which was gravity-fed from a tank in the engine cowl (between firewall and dash).<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="other_carbs_model_a_org">[http://www.model-a.org/other_carbs.html "Other Carbs" / "Model B Carburetor,"] Model-A.org, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>  The carburetor underwent many modifications during its relatively short (four-year) production run.<ref name="how_design_evolved_model_a_org">[http://www.model-a.org/how_carb_evolved.html "How the Carburetor Design Evolved,"] Model-A.org, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>

The Zenith has features, advanced for that era, that solved some early engine performance problems. The carburetor is designed to run lean, to allow for high-altitude driving. To allow better performance at low altitudes, and in cold weather, the fuel/air mixture ratio is controlled by a manual choke and "Gas Adjusting Valve" (GAV). To ensure adequate fuel flow during starting or acceleration, a secondary well momentarily provides an extra supply of fuel.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="how_it_works_model_a_org">[http://www.model-a.org/how_carb_works.html "How the (Zenith) carburetor basically works,"] Model-A.org, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref> A manual fuel shut-off valve is also supplied,<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /> and some also have a manual throttle.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" />

Although the Zenith Model A carburetor was fitted to the engines in the vast majority of Ford Model A cars (reportedly to 3.5 million of the approximately 4.8 million built<ref name="chrysler_ford_durant_sloan_2003_h_eugene_weiss">H Eugene Weiss. ''Chrysler, Ford, Durant and Sloan: Founding Giants of the American Automotive ...'', Jefferson: McFarland, 2003 {{ISBN|0786416114}}</ref>), it was not the only carburetor used. Another 19 brands were fitted to various Model A engines – either as original equipment or aftermarket retrofits – and some Model A engines were retrofitted with the slightly larger, more sophisticated Zenith designed for the Ford Model B engine.<ref name="other_carbs_model_a_org" />

[[File:Ford Model A 1928 Wood Gas 01.jpg|thumb|right|Ford Model A automobile converted to use wood gas from the gasification stove attached to the back of the car. ]]

The engine works with modern unleaded regular gasoline.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" />

In rare instances, the Model A engine has been powered by [[wood gas]], produced in a [[wood gas generator]], such as a "Gazogene," typically a large, sealed, stove-like cylinder mounted on the vehicle, or towed, which heated or burned wood (or charcoal), to produce fumes of flammable wood gas, as a minimal substitute for gasoline. The resulting gas was routed to the engine's intake manifold, via a duct and special induction system.<ref name="gazogene_conversion_tbauto_org">[https://www.tbauto.org/project/ford-model-a-1929-united-states-2/ "1929 Ford Model A Gazogene Conversion,"] [[Tampa Bay Automobile Museum]], retrieved December 6, 2022</ref><ref name="wood_gas_holzvergaser">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g22U79seuN0 "Ford Model A drives on wood gas"] (video of system and operation), Holzvergaser on YouTube, retrieved December 6, 2022</ref><ref name="why_2017_01_22_hemmings_com">Glon, Ronan: [https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2017/01/22/from-gasoline-to-gasification-or-why-we-dont-power-cars-with-wood-today "From gasoline to gasification, or why we don't power cars with wood today,"] January 22, 2017, ''[[Hemmings Motor News]]'' (system fueling a Ford Model A engine is depicted and described), retrieved December 6, 2022</ref>

=== Engine electrical system ===
The electrical system supporting the engine typically consisted of a 6-volt battery, a 6-volt DC generator (driven by a belt connected to the crankshaft pulley), starter, lights, ammeter, and ignition system (ignition coil, distributor, spark plugs) with connecting wires. A manual spark lever advances or retards the ignition, particularly retarding the spark plug ignition during engine starting.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="electrical_technical_mafca_com">[https://www.mafca.com/tqa_e_block.html "Electrical,"], updated August 8, 2022, ''Technical Q&A,'' Model A Ford Club of America, Inc. (MAFCA), retrieved November 7, 2022</ref><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /><ref name="electrical_modelagarage_com">[https://modelagarage.com/electrical/ "Electrical"] (specifications and schematic diagram), Model A Garage, Inc., retrieved December 2, 2022</ref><ref name="ignition_modelagarage_com">[https://modelagarage.com/electrical/ "Ignition"] (specifications, description and schematic diagrams) Model A Garage, Inc., retrieved December 2, 2022</ref>

The Model A was configured with a positive-ground system (positive battery terminal connected to vehicle frame and engine block) – opposite of the norm in modern "negative-ground" vehicles, often causing technical confusion.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="electrical_modelagarage_com" /><ref name="electrical_technical_mafca_com"/>

[[File:1928 Ford Model A Tudor sedan (5406509673).jpg|thumb|left|Model A engine cooling system includes belt-driven fan-and-pump assembly projecting forward from the cylinder head  (shown: red pump, black 2-blade fan). Water travels up through angled red tube to top of radiator at front of car.]]

=== Engine cooling system ===
The Model A engine uses a centrifugal water pump, mounted to the engine cylinder head, and it works with the engine fan. The Model A engine uses plain water to cool the engine; [[antifreeze]] coolant is not recommended because the original Model A radiator is not a pressurized system. The pump circulates radiator-cooled water into the lower engine, and as the water becomes heated in the block's water jacket, it is forced out of the water jacket through the upper radiator hose, and back into the radiator, where it cools, and settles, and the cycle repeats.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="history_1998_05_15_theautochannel" />

=== Drivetrain ===
==== Model A automobile ====
When implemented in the Ford Model A automobile, the Model A engine was coupled, via a 63-pound [[flywheel]], and [[clutch]],<ref name="engine_block_technical_mafca_com" /> with a traditional three-speed, sliding gear ("sliding-pinion" type), [[manual transmission]] (compared to the earlier Model T's planetary band-type gearbox).<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="ford_model_a_automobile_si_edu">[https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/snapshot/ford-model-automobile "Ford Model A Automobile,"] ''Smithsonian Snapshot,'' [[Smithsonian Institution]], retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>

The Ford three-speed, selective sliding gear transmission (with 1-speed reverse) initially came (on early 1928 cars) with a multiple-disc clutch (as on the Model T), but it was eventually replaced with a single-plate clutch. There were no [[Manual_transmission#Synchromesh|synchronizers]], making "double clutching" a useful skill for Model A drivers.<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />

The drivetrain ended at the wheels with the final drive ratio of 3.77:1.<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /> On a typical Model A, this typically provided 25-30 miles per gallon, and speeds up to 65 miles per hour.<ref name="model_a_primer_model_a_ford_org" /><ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />

==== Model AA truck ====
When the Model A engine is implemented in the 1.5-ton [[Ford Model AA]] truck, the engine serial number – normally preceded by the single letter "A" – is, instead, preceded by "AA", denoting the implementation of a stronger clutch spring, to accommodate multiple-disc clutch units, or (for single-disc clutch units) the AA-7563 clutch pressure plate and its cover assembly, or units with the 4-speed transmission and clutch.<ref name="aa_info_aafords_com">[https://aafords.com/aa-information/ "AA Information,"] ''AA Fords-FMAATC,'' Ford Model AA Type Club, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>

Various transmissions and other drivetrain options were offered.<ref name="model_aa_truck_autoevolution_com" /><ref name="aa_info_aafords_com" /> Combinations of drivetrain equipment affected the top speed which an AA could reach, while slower, lower-geared AA's could pull with greater torque.<ref name="aa_info_aafords_com" />

The AA trucks were typically supplied with the 3-speed transmission of the Model A automobile, or an optional AA truck 4-speed transmission. If equipped with the 3-speed transmission, a "Dual High" factory-option underdrive for the AA was offered. The AA's rear axles were available with two different gear ratios.<ref name="aa_info_aafords_com" />

Various aftermarket drivetrain options were available, including the Warford 3-speed transmission.<ref name="aa_info_aafords_com" />

== Operational history and adaptations ==
[[File:80-year-old_Ford_Model_A_Deluxe_Tudor_(6299777100).jpg|thumb|left|Ford Model A Deluxe Tudor, with hood lifted to show Model A engine; Portsmouth, Ohio, 2011, photo by Don O'Brien]]
The '''Ford Model A engine,''' produced in the millions,<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="brief_history_2018_08_23_blueprintengines_com" /> was one of the most mass-produced automobile engines of the 1920s and 1930s,<ref name="ford_model_a_ford_com"/> used in automobiles, trucks, tractors, farm machinery, industrial applications, boats, military vehicles, and even aircraft.

With an already established dealer-and-servicing network created by Ford for the Model T, the Ford Model A and its engine had the advantage of a pre-positioned distribution-and-support network.  This superior support system further enhanced sales. As the Ford system grew, and as economies of scale made the engine more competitive against rivals, the Model A engine rapidly became increasingly popular for a wide range of applications, across the United States, and around the world. The vast quantities of Ford Model A engines produced, during a short time, flooded the market.

Even after the engine was superseded by Ford's Model B engine, and discontinued by Ford in 1932, demand for used Model A engines, or license-built copies, continued – for a growing range of applications, with some Model A engines remaining in service for decades. Some derivatives, with improvements, were produced until 1958.<ref name="evolution_modelaengine_com"/> Tens of thousands of the original design remain active even in the 21st Century – particularly powering Ford Model A cars preserved as recreational antiques.<ref name="history_1998_05_15_theautochannel" />
<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com"/>

=== Automobiles ===
==== Range of application ====
[[File:Model_A_Ford_linup.jpg|thumb|right|Ford Model A lineup, different models. [[Huntington Beach, California]], July 24, 2004, photo by Morven.]]
Primarily developed for the popular [[Ford Model A (1927–1931)|Ford Model A]] automobile (1927-1931),<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org"/> the '''Ford Model A engine''' was the engine almost universally installed in that automobile,<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com">{{Cite news |last=McCourt |first=Mark J. |date=September 22, 2018 |title=1928-'31 Ford Model A: 'The Start of a New Line' remains one of the most popular collector cars of all time, |language=en-US |work=[[Hemmings Motor News]] |url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/article/1928-31-ford-model-a |access-date=November 7, 2022}}</ref> of which 4.8 million were built by 1932,<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="brief_history_2018_08_23_blueprintengines_com" />  in a wide range of styles and configurations: [[Coupe]], Business Coupe, [[Roadster (automobile)|Roadster]] Coupe, Sport Coupe,  [[Convertible (car)|Convertible]] [[Cabriolet]], Convertible [[Sedan (automobile)|Sedan]], Victoria, [[two-door sedan|Tudor]], [[Phaeton body|Phaeton]], [[Town Car]], 2- and 3-window [[Full-size Ford|Fordor]], [[Station Wagon]], [[Taxicab]], Commercial and [[Pick-up truck|Truck]].

[[File:1930_Model_A_Ford_Phaeton_(8517878784).jpg|thumb|left|Ford Model A engine controls: spark advance and manual throttle levers on steering column, accelerator and starter pedals on floor, ignition key-switch on instrument panel's left lobe, gas-adjusting valve (mixture) and gas shutoff on small white knob under dash at right, in front of passenger.]]

==== Controls and adjustments ====

In automotive applications, the Ford Model A engine originally used a complex assortment of controls, including accelerator pedal, manual throttle, choke and mixture control (officially known as "Gas Adjusting Valve" or GAV), gas shutoff, ignition key-switch, starter pedal, and manual spark advance (in addition drivetrain controls: clutch and gear-shifter).<ref name="controls_adjustments_modle_a_org">[https://www.model-a.org/controls_adjustments.html "Controls and Adjustments,"] Model-A.org, retrieved December 7, 2022</ref><ref name="driving_secondchancegarage_com">[http://www.secondchancegarage.com/public4/driving-ford-model-a-1.cfm "Driving a Ford Model A,"] Second Chance Garage, retrieved December 7, 2022</ref>

These controls were mounted on the floor (accelerator and starter pedals), or steering column (spark advance and manual throttle), or on (or immediately below) the dashboard.<ref name="controls_adjustments_modle_a_org" /><ref name="driving_secondchancegarage_com" /> Reportedly, the State of Pennsylvania required the gas shutoff valve to be mounted inside the engine compartment, instead.

Starting the Model A engine commonly requires a detailed sequence of manipulation of all these controls, and properly shutting down the engine is almost as complex.<ref name="controls_adjustments_modle_a_org" /><ref name="driving_secondchancegarage_com" />

Additionally, occasional adjustment of the idle throttle and idle mixture controls, mounted on the carburetor, may be required.<ref name="controls_adjustments_modle_a_org" /><ref name="driving_secondchancegarage_com" />

=== Trucks ===
[[File:1929 Ford Model AA Truck DGO099.jpg|thumb|left|1929 [[Ford Model AA]] heavy-duty truck, a variant of the Model A]]

The 1.5-ton [[Ford Model AA]] truck – produced for only five years, but widely used for decades – was powered by the Ford Model A engine, commonly driving a four-speed manual transmission.<ref name="model_aa_truck_autoevolution_com" />

The [[U.S. Postal Service]] – to eliminate the complexity and cost of its variety of postal trucks (including 1,444 acquired as war surplus), and to accommodate the needs of [[parcel post]] service – purchased a fleet of Model A and AA vehicles from Ford, fitted with custom-built postal truck bodies manufactured and assembled by outside builders, mounted on a Ford Model A and AA chassis. These trucks remained in use, until the 1950s.<ref name="ford_model_a_truck_postalmuseum_si_edu">[https://postalmuseum.si.edu/object/npm_1990.0587.2 "Ford Model A half-ton parcel post truck,"]. [[National Postal Museum]], [[Smithsonian Institution]], retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>[[File:VDNH 21 (10656185516).jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[GAZ-AA]], originally built with [[Ford Model AA]] components.]]
Other truck manufacturers used the Ford Model A engine, as well, or a variant thereof – particularly if they were also using a Ford Model A or Model AA chassis, or license-building the same under their own name.  The [[GAZ-AA]] ([[Soviet Union]]), produced from 1931–1938 is one example, though by 1938 it was using an improved engine.

Model AA trucks commonly used engine controls similar to those in Model A automobiles.

=== Racing ===

[[File:1928_Ford_Model_A_Racer.jpg|thumb|left|Ford Model A Racer 1928]]
During the 1930s, the Ford Model A (and Model B) engines were popular for racing,<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="engine_thumbnails_nwvs_org">[https://www.nwvs.org/Technical/Engines/EngineModelABThumbs.shtml "Model A/B Engines Era,"] "Engine Thumbnail Index," Northwest Vintage Speedsters, [[Portland, Oregon]] retrieved November 30, 2022</ref><ref name="a_hot_rod_2021_11_18_nytimes_com">Stenquist, Paul: [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/18/business/ford-model-a-hot-rod.html "A Hot Rod Before Its Time: Ford's Model A, With a Boost: This car was built almost exclusively with 1930s mechanical components, but it has been driven as fast as 70 m.p.h.,"] Nov. 18, 2021, ''[[New York Times]],'' retrieved November 30, 2022</ref> in part because their lightweight internal moving parts had little inertia to overcome in acceleration – both from the starting line, and from acceleration out of curves. However, that same light construction resulted in fragile engines that often broke during a race.<ref name="racecars_modelaengine_com">Burtz, Terry: [http://www.modelaengine.com/03-racecars.html "Racecars,"] ''Re-Engineering the Model A Engine,'' retrieved November 7, 2022</ref>

[[File:1929_Ford_Model_A_Special_Racer_Liechtenstein.jpg|thumb|right|1929 Ford Model A Special Racer]]

Aftermarket parts and modifications became widely available,<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" /><ref name="engine_thumbnails_nwvs_org" /><ref name="a_hot_rod_2021_11_18_nytimes_com" /><ref name="riley_head_a_ford_com"> McKelvie, Steve B.: [https://stevemckelvie.wordpress.com/2018/07/28/riley-head-conversions-for-ford-model-a-engines/ "Riley Head Conversions For Ford Model A&nbsp;Engines,"] July 28, 2018, SteveMcKelvie.com, retrieved November 29, 2022</ref> enabling improvements for racing – with some modified engines reaching compression ratios of 12:1, producing 250 horsepower. The Ford Model A and B engines dominated American auto racing until [[World War II]]<ref name="racecars_modelaengine_com" /><ref name="motorsports_model_a_ford_com">[https://www.model-a-ford.com/motorsports.html "Motorsports: Our Race Cars,"] B. Terry Vintage Automobile Restoration, Maintenance & Sales, retrieved November 29, 2022</ref><ref name="midget_racing_cherry_park_acotnews_org">Pinney, Rusty: [http://www.acotnews.org/track-history-midgets-at-cherry-park "The Story of Midget Auto Racing at Cherry Park,"] Atlantic Coast Old Timers (ACOT), retrieved November 30, 2022</ref><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

Some racing is still done with Ford Model A engines,<ref name="motorsports_model_a_ford_com" /><ref name="fast">[http://www.hotforhotfours.com/ Ford 'A' Speed Technology group] (FAST) -- which covers vintage 4 cylinder Model T, A, and B engines and the vehicles they power -- past, present and future, retrieved November 29, 2022</ref><ref name="antique_car_drag_race_2012_cowneck_org">[https://www.cowneck.org/antique-car-drag-race announcement: "Antique Car Drag Race: September 12, 2021"], Cow Neck Peninsula Historical Society, Port Washington, New York, retrieved November 29, 2022</ref><ref name="ford_hillclimb_2022_05_07_youtube_com">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADpLRiES29Q "Ford Four Banger Hillclimb 2022,"] (video, showing Ford Model A engines racing), May 7, 2022, Motherlode Motors, on YouTube, retrieved December 7, 2022</ref> and high-performance aftermarket modifications are available to increase performance, with some achieving 110 horsepower, at compression ratios of up to 6.5-to-1.<ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /><ref name="engine_thumbnails_nwvs_org" /><ref name="a_hot_rod_2021_11_18_nytimes_com" />

=== Tractors ===
==== Great Depression (1930s) ====
Some Model A Ford engines were used to power tractors. The 1929 [[Worthington Mower Company|Worthington]] Model A golf tractor was fitted with a Model A engine,<ref name="on_the_farm_mafca_com" /><ref name="worthington_hemmings_com">O'Clair, Jim: [https://www.hemmings.com/blog/article/1952-worthington-model-g "1952 Worthington Model G,"] February 2012, ''[[Hemmings Motor News]]'' retrieved December 6, 2022</ref> as  was the scarce PAL Tractor.<ref name="pal_tractor_1999_10_01_farmcollector_com">Mcdaniel, Leslie C.: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/pal-tractor-beats-the-odds/ " PAL Tractor Beats the Odds,"] October 1, 1999, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref>

Thieman Harvester Company / Thieman Brothers, in 1936, began offering tractors – either complete with Ford Model A engine (about $500), or as a kit, without engine, driveshaft, or rear end ($185). Farmers were expected to cut costs on kits by buying used parts to complete them, but the company recommended a Ford HD truck radiator and four-blade fan.<ref name="theiman_tractor_2007_01_01_farmcollector_com">Vossler, B.: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/thieman-tractor-homemade-tractors/ "The Thieman Tractor,"] January 1, 2007, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref>

[[File:Ford epa tractor.jpg|thumb|left|Model A Ford converted to a tractor]]
Some other manufacturers' tractors, such as Thrifty Tractor (starting in 1930, and listed in the Sears spring and fall catalogs from 1932 to 1941<ref name="thrifty_farmer_2019_09_10_farmcollector_com">Mattson, Jerry: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/thrifty-farmer-zm0z19octzhur/ "The Thrifty Farmer Tractor,"] September 10, 2019, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref>), were sold by [[Sears]], [[Montgomery Ward]], and others as kits, without the engine – though designed to use the Ford Model A engine, which buyers were expected to find on their own. Some even required a whole Model A vehicle, to be cannibalized for the conversion, though others only required the engine and a few other components.<ref name="on_the_farm_mafca_com" /><ref name="thieman_tractor_farmcollector_com">Vossler, Bill: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/thieman-tractor-homemade-tractors/ "The Thieman Tractor,"] ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved November 30, 2022</ref><ref name="thrifty_farmer_davidbradley_net">{{cite web|url=http://www.davidbradley.net/Thrifty_Farmer.htm|title=Thrifty Farmer|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119160858/http://www.davidbradley.net/Thrifty_Farmer.htm|archivedate=2008-11-19}}</ref><ref name="saving_a_sears_2017_05_08_farmcollector_com">Vossler, Bill: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/sears-economy-tractor-zmbz17junzhur/ "Saving a Sears Economy Tractor,"] May 8, 2017, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref>

Evolving from the kits they sold, [[Sears|Sears, Roebuck & Company's]] Economy (or "New Economy") tractors, first built in 1938 by Peru Plow Works, were complete tractors, with a rebuilt Ford Model A engine included, along with self-starter, governor, special carburetor, air cleaner and oil filter. The Economy offered belt drive and [[power take-off]] (PTO) options, to allow the engine to power other farm machinery. The Economy was priced at $495, about half the price of other tractors and, by far, the least-expensive 2-plow tractor available then. Estimates of units sold vary – from under 500, to about 1000 – with the line discontinued around 1940.<ref name="saving_a_sears_2017_05_08_farmcollector_com" /><ref name="california_pioneer_2002_04_01_farmcollector_com">Smith, Nancy: [https://www.farmcollector.com/steam-engines/california-pioneer/ "California Pioneer,"]  April 1, 2002, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref><ref name="taking_sears_2018_06_06_farmcollector_com">Vossler, Bill: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/tractors-collections/sears-new-economy-tractors-zmbz18julzhur/ "Taking Sears New Economy Tractors on the Road,"] June 6, 2018, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref><ref name="sears_mail_order_2009_06_30_farmcollector_com">Boblenz, James N.: [https://www.farmcollector.com/tractors/tractors-collections/sears-new-economy-tractors-zmbz18julzhur/ " Sears’ Mail-Order Tractor,"] June 30, 2009, ''Farm Collector,'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref>

Some farmers even designed and built their own tractors, and powered them with the Model A engine.<ref name="on_the_farm_mafca_com" /> 

During the economic hardships of the [[Great Depression]], which financially devastated many farmers,<ref name="commodity_data_2019_06_03_bls_gov">{{cite web |title=Commodity Data |url=https://www.bls.gov/data/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603140110/https://www.bls.gov/data/ |archive-date=June 3, 2019 |access-date=November 30, 2008 |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref><ref name="farm_prices_1958_willard_cochrane">{{cite journal |author=Cochrane, Willard W. |author-link=Willard Cochrane |year=1958 |title=Farm Prices, Myth and Reality |page=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=World Economic Survey 1932–33 |journal=[[League of Nations]] |page=43}}</ref><ref name="depression_decade_mitchell">Mitchell, Broadus. ''Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941'' (1947), [[iarchive:depressiondecade0000mitc|online]]</ref> these various low-cost tractors – powered by the affordable, plentiful Ford Model A engine – provided a comparatively inexpensive, minimal tractor for essential, basic agricultural work.<ref name="on_the_farm_mafca_com" /><ref name="tractor_kit_farmcollector_com" /><ref name="thieman_tractor_farmcollector_com" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Great Depression |url=https://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/TheGreatDepression.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329184059/http://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/TheGreatDepression.aspx |archive-date=March 29, 2018 |access-date=March 29, 2018 |website=drought.unl.edu |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== World War II and after (1940s) ====
During [[World War II]], a national tractor shortage motivated some American farmers to build their own tractors from Model A components. These were known as "[[Doodlebug tractor|doodlebug tractors]]."<ref name="whats_a_doodlebug_2022_01_20_autoweek">[https://www.autoweek.com/car-life/classic-cars/a38810314/doodlebug-homemade-tractor/ "What's a DoodleBug? Hint: It's a Homemade Tractor,"] January 20, 2022, ''[[Autoweek]],'' retrieved December 6, 2022</ref>

Around 1946, the line of [[Speedex Tractors]] (initially Pond Tractors) added the Speedex Model FG ("Farm and Garden Tractor"), which used the Ford Model A engine and other Ford parts. However, production ended in 1948 when Ford became a competitor, manufacturing tractors of its own, and stopped selling components to Speedex.<ref name="speedex_history">[http://www.speedextractorinformation.org/SpeedexHistory.html "Speedex History,"] ''Speedex Tractor Information,'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="speedex_strongland_story">[https://www.stractors.com/history/ "The story behind Speedex and Strongland,"] Speedextractors.com, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>

=== Military vehicles ===
==== In Ford military vehicles ====
Ford Model A and Model AA vehicles, modified, were the basis of the [[U.S. Army]]'s first serious development of the motorized light [[field artillery]] [[gun battery]]. In 1932, at [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]], the 17th Field Artillery Ford Motorized Battery used these vehicles to transport 75mm guns, supplies, and support and command personnel. [[File:TKS P1010141 2.jpg|thumb|left|Polis [[TKS]] tankette]] Previously, the Army had relied on horses and mules to transport light artillery; this experiment changed that.<ref name="fordgarage_com">[https://www.fordgarage.com/pages/fordbattery17fa.htm "US Army 17th Field Artillery, Ford Motorized Battery,"] "Model A & AA", FordGarage.com, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref><ref name="test_1933_07_field_artillery_jour">Wallace, Major J. H., F.A, U.S. Army:  [https://tradocfcoeccafcoepfwprod.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/fires-bulletin-archive/1933/JUL_AUG_1933/JUL_AUG_1933_FULL_EDITION.pdf "Test of the Truck-Drawn 75mm Battery,"] July-August, 1933, ''The Field Artillery Journal,'' Volume XXIII, No. 4, page 301, et. seq., retrieved December 2, 2022</ref>

==== In other military vehicles ====
Although the Ford Model A and Model AA trucks were not built with a chassis strong enough for the weight of armor, some countries developed armored cars, and even miniature tanks, on those chassis, anyway – generally with the Ford Model A engine, or a variant thereof. Some were largely devoid of Ford structure, but used the Ford Model A engine and/or a derivative.<ref name="tk3_tks_tanks_encyclopedia_com" /><ref name="fai_tanks_encyclopedia_com">[https://www.tanks-encyclopedia.com/ww2/soviet/soviet_FAI.php "FAI & FAI-M"], ''Tank Encyclopedia,'' The Online Tank Museum, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="tkd_tanks_encyclopedia_com"> [https://tanks-encyclopedia.com/ww2/polish/tkd "TKD"], ''Tank Encyclopedia,'' The Online Tank Museum, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref> Examples include the wheeled [[FAI armoured car|FAI & FAI-M]] ([[Soviet Union]]) [[Armored car (military)|armored car]]s,<ref name="fai_tanks_encyclopedia_com" /> and the tracked TKD<ref name="tkd_tanks_encyclopedia_com" /> and [[TKS|TK-3]]<ref name="tk3_tks_tanks_encyclopedia_com" /> "[[tankette]]s" ([[Poland]]) (lightweight, fast scout tanks – 690 in all – the short-lived bulk of Polish armor at the start of [[World War II]]).<ref name="tk3_tks_tanks_encyclopedia_com" />

=== Aircraft ===
==== Great Depression substitute ====
Compared to most automotive engines, aircraft engines are typically highly refined (for very high reliability, light weight, continuous high power settings, at high torque and low-RPM, with air-cooling and redundant systems, and unusual flight conditions) – usually produced in relatively small quantities –  and are thus are very expensive.<ref name="car_engines_2012_04_10_flyingmag_com">Pope, Stephen: [https://www.flyingmag.com/aircraft-do-car-engines-make-good-airplane-engines/ "Do Car Engines Make Good Airplane Engines,"] April 10, 2012, ''[[Flying (magazine)]],'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="airplanes_cars_2016_01_28_planeandpilotmag_com">Kern, Tim: [https://www.planeandpilotmag.com/article/airplanes-cars-whats-the-difference/ "Airplanes, Cars—What's the Difference?,"]  Updated January 28, 2016, ''Plane and Pilot magazine,'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="auto_engines_2001_08_kitplanes_com">[https://www.kitplanes.com/auto-engines-for-aircraft-part-1/ "Auto Engines for Aircraft, Part 1,"] August 2001, ''Kitplanes,'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>

In the 1930s, during the [[Great Depression]], aviation enthusiasts were frustrated by the cost of acquiring or building an airplane, largely due to the most expensive part: the engine. Some built their own [[homebuilt aircraft|"homebuilt" airplanes]], using whatever engines they could find – particularly automobile engines, usually modified.<ref name="in_search_2015_07_13_generalaviationnews">Parks, Dennis: [https://generalaviationnews.com/2015/07/13/in-search-of-the-700-airplane/ "In search of the $700 airplane,"] July 13, 2015, ''General Aviation News,'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="air_camper_history_pietnenpolaircraftcompany">[https://www.pietenpolaircraftcompany.com/pietenpol-air-camper-history "Pietenpol Air Camper History,"] Pietenpol Aircraft Company, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>

The most plentiful engines of the time were Ford Model T, Model A, and Model B engines. The  Model A engine, available cheaply,<ref name="reading_2008_03_ch33_eaa_org">Williams, Keith: [https://chapters.eaa.org/eaa33/newsletters/-/media/aed4ca97820e403e8ede10857ded3716.ashx "Reading a 75-year-old Magazine,"] March 2008, ''The Lippisch Letter,'' Chapter 33, [[Experimental Aircraft Association]], pages 3-4, quoting [[Bernard H. Pietenpol]], from "Build and Fly Pietenpol 2-seater with Ford Motor," ''1932 Flying and Glider Manual'' and ''1933 Flying Manual'' both of the magazine ''Modern Mechanics and Inventions,'' Fawcett; retrieved December 2, 2022</ref><ref name="pietenpol_project_ch_1644_eaa_org">[https://chapters.eaa.org/eaa1644/pietenpol-project "Pietenpol Project,"] EAA Chapter 1644, [[Experimental Aircraft Association]] (EAA), retrieved December 2, 2022</ref> and fairly light while providing 40 horsepower<ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /><ref name="reading_2008_03_ch33_eaa_org" /> – and designed for operation at low-RPM speeds ideal for propellers<ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /> – proved adaptable to some single-seat or two-seat aircraft.<ref name="pietenpol_waaamuseum_org" /><ref name="air_camper_history_pietnenpolaircraftcompany" /><ref name="in_search_2015_07_13_generalaviationnews" /><ref name="ford_enginehistory_org">[https://www.enginehistory.org/Piston/HOAE/Ford.html "Ford"], Aircraft Engine Historical Society (AEHS), retrieved November 7, 2022</ref>  Its carburetor's design for high-altitude operation, and its "Gas Adjusting Valve" (GAV) mixture control, enabled in-flight adjustment to altitude changes.<ref name="how_it_works_model_a_org" />

==== The $700 airplane competition ====
[[File:Wiley Post Model A.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wiley Post Model A]].]]
In November, 1933, the U.S. [[Bureau of Air Commerce]] started a program to make personal aircraft as common as medium-priced automobiles. The Bureau encouraged aircraft manufacturers to design a simple, safe aircraft priced at $700 or less. It invested money to develop conversions of Ford auto engines for aircraft use, with the expectation of cutting the cost of an airplane's engine, from 60% of an aircraft's total cost, down to just to 25%.<ref name="in_search_2015_07_13_generalaviationnews" />

The program yielded only three aircraft that earned [[Type certificate|Approved Type Certificates]]: The $990 [[Wiley Post Model A]] biplane, using the Ford Model A engine – the first airplane certified in the U.S. with an automobile engine (though only about 13 were built) – plus versions of the [[Arrow Sport]] (using a Ford V-8 engine), and the [[Funk Model B]] (using a modified Ford Model B engine).<ref name="in_search_2015_07_13_generalaviationnews" />

==== Pietenpol AirCamper ====
[[File:Pietenpol (N83WK).jpg|thumb|right|[[Pietenpol Air Camper]] with Ford Model A engine, radiator directly in front of pilot.]]

{{main|Pietenpol Air Camper}}
The airplane most famously equipped with the Model A engine was the [[Pietenpol Air Camper]], a popular [[homebuilt aircraft]] designed by [[Bernard Pietenpol]], who eventually standardized his design on the Ford Model A engine.<ref name="pietenpol_waaamuseum_org" /><ref name="pietenpol_2016_08_11_flightjournal_com">[https://www.flightjournal.com/bernard-h-pietenpol/ "Personalities: Bernard H. Pietenpol,"] updated August 11, 2016, ''[[Flight Journal]],'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="cleared_for_takeoff_2018_09_23_hemmings_com">LaChance, David: [https://www.hemmings.com/stories/article/cleared-for-takeoff "Cleared for Takeoff,"] September 23, 2018, ''[[Hemmings Motor News]],'' retrieved November 7, 2022</ref><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /><ref name="reading_2008_03_ch33_eaa_org" />

Though all Pietenpol homebuilts put the engine in the nose of the plane, configurations varied widely. Some modified the cylinders to allow for a second spark plug (to accommodate dual ignition systems for redundant safety and enhanced performance). Some replaced the battery/generator-powered coil-and-distributor ignition system with one or two aftermarket [[magneto]]s for greater reliability.<ref name="air_camper_history_pietnenpolaircraftcompany" /><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

Some were customized with aluminum heads. A few were modified with air-cooled cylinders, but most used the engine's water-cooling system, usually with the original Ford radiator. Though radiator placements varied, it was most often placed immediately above the engine, significantly blocking the pilot's forward view. Others placed the radiator under the engine cowling, above the wing, or elsewhere.<ref name="pietenpol_waaamuseum_org" /><ref name="cleared_for_takeoff_2018_09_23_hemmings_com" /><ref name="air_camper_history_pietnenpolaircraftcompany" /><ref name="presentation_2007_03_ch35_eaa_org">[https://chapters.eaa.org/eaa35/newsletters/-/media/a96cc2ff782e4a059e9faa9fc094e880.ashx "Warner, Norris: Pietenpol Presentation,"] March 2007, ''Runway 35,'' Volume 49, Issue 3, EAA Chapter 35, [[Experimental Aircraft Association]] (EAA), retrieved December 2, 2022</ref> Additional modifications could include carburetor heat piping and a shorter water pump.<ref name="air_camper_history_pietnenpolaircraftcompany" />

Fuel to a Pietenpol's Ford engine is generally gravity-fed from a header tank or wing tank (Pietenpols have a high wing). Exhaust generally is not muffled, with headers often replaced by short exhaust stacks.<ref name="air_camper_history_pietnenpolaircraftcompany" />

The Pietenpol designs, despite having adapted to many other engines over the decades, are still occasionally built with Ford Model A engines.<ref name="more_news_2008_03_ch33_eaa_org">Williams, Keith: [https://chapters.eaa.org/eaa33/newsletters/-/media/aed4ca97820e403e8ede10857ded3716.ashx "More Pietenpol News,"] March 2008, ''The Lippisch Letter,'' Chapter 33, [[Experimental Aircraft Association]], pages 4-5, retrieved December 2, 2022</ref><ref name="smile_maker_2017_08_01_aopa_org">Twombly, Ian J.: [https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2017/august/pilot/smile-maker "Smile maker: The Pietenpol Air Camper is built for fun,"] August 1, 2017, ''[[AOPA Pilot]],'' retrieved November 7, 2022</ref><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /> However, the strain of aircraft operations results in a higher rate of engine failure with automotive engines, and Pietenpol pilots thus-equipped generally plan for the risk of occasional off-field forced landings.<ref name="smile_maker_2017_08_01_aopa_org" /><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

=== Industrial, agricultural and marine ===
==== The Model A "industrial" engine ====
Ford offered the Model A engine, very slightly modified, as the "Ford Industrial Engine," for "industrial, agricultural or marine purposes." The "industrial engine" was advertised as producing 39 brake horsepower at 2200 rpm, or 23 horsepower at the engine's more customary 1000 rpm.<ref name="ford_industrial_engine_flyer">[https://www.fordgarage.com/pages/fordindustrialengine.htm brochure: "Ford Industrial Engine,"] 1930, [[Ford Motor Company]], with drawings, graphs, specifications and detailed description, posted at FordGarage.com, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>

The engine was offered in three models in 1930:<ref name="ford_industrial_engine_flyer" />
* A-6002 – Engine with clutch and transmission, $180 (serial numbers typically in the format "*IA#######*")
* AA-6002 – Engine with heavy duty (truck) clutch and 4-speed transmission, $190 (serial numbers typically in the format "*IAA#######*")
* A-6007 – Engine, without clutch or transmission, $135.

Ford offered "special wholesale prices to manufacturers," and advertised that "complete service" for the engine was available "from any of the ... Authorized Ford Dealers ... throughout the country."<ref name="ford_industrial_engine_flyer" />

==== Industrial use ====
The Ford Model A engine was used to power various industrial machinery, some with very unusual adaptations. For example, Gordon Smith & Co. ([[Bowling Green, Kentucky]]), developed a portable air compressor conversion of the Model A engine, which used cylinders 1 and 4 normally, for motive power – but used cylinders 2 and 3 for air compression. This hybrid industrial adaptation was produced through the 1950s.<ref name="gordon_smith_compressor_fordgarage_com">[https://www.fordgarage.com/pages/gordonsmithcompressor.htm "Gordon Smith & Co.: Portable Engine Air Compressor,"] "Ford Garage," (with photos), retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>

In another case, a Ford Model A engine was used to drive a suction pump used to dredge the bottoms of bodies of water for gold mining.<ref name="hammer_placer_whiskeytown__1978_05_nps_gov">Toogood, Anna Coxe: ''Historic Resource Study,'' Whiskeytown National Recreation Area, California,  
Chapter II: "Exhaustion of Surface Gold Spurs New Mining Methods in Shasta County," B.) Singular or Short-Lived Mining Operations, 1896-1960,  2.) Placer Mining, [https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/whis/hrs/chap2.htm “f. Hammer Placer of A. R. Potts ,”], May 1978, [[National Park Service]], retrieved December 7, 2022</ref> At another site, another Model A engine was used to reverse a dredge's bucket line when it scooped a rock too big for the machine.<ref name="flat_and_iditarod_1997_04_blm_gov">Buzzell, Rolfe G. (editor): [https://www.blm.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/Library_Alaska_OpenFileReport66.pdf "John Miscovich Interview,"] April 1997, ''Flat And Iditarod 1993-1995 Oral History Interviews,'' [[U.S. Department of the Interior]], BLM-Alaska Open File Report 66, [[Bureau of Land Management]], BLM/AK/ST-97/022+8111+40, and [[State of Alaska]], Department of Natural Resources, pp.94-95, retrieved December 7, 2022 </ref> The engine has also been used to power drilling rigs.<ref name="taking_sears_2018_06_06_farmcollector_com" />

[[File:Gleaner_A_Combine.jpg|thumb|right|Gleaner Model A Combine]]

==== Agricultural use ====
In addition to the Ford Model A engine's [[#Tractors| use in tractors]], its industrial variant also powered the popular [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company|Gleaner-Baldwin]] farm [[Combine harvester|combines]]. The Gleaner Baldwin Model A, built from 1930 to 1935, was so equipped, as were later Gleaner Models, the NA and NR, until 1938. The combine's Model A engine was mounted on a frame fitted for the radiator, and was coupled to a [[power take-off]] unit.<ref name="gleaner_baldwin_fordgarage_com">[https://www.fordgarage.com/pages/gleanerbaldwin.htm "Model A Gleaner Baldwin Combine,"] "Ford Garage," (with photos and original advertisement, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref><ref name="pierce_v_state_justia_com">[https://law.justia.com/cases/oklahoma/court-of-appeals-criminal/1932/43854.html "Pierce v State,"] "U.S. Law," ''[[JUSTIA]]'' citing Pierce v State, 1932 OK CR 189, 15 P.2d 603, 54 Okl.Cr. 118, Decided: 10/14/1932, Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals, retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>

==== Marine use ====
[[File:Ford Model A Marine engine at the Gilmore Car Museum.jpg|thumb|Ford Model A Marine engine at the [[Gilmore Car Museum]]]]Some Model A engines powered boats.<ref name="boats_and_motors_1946_03_28_loc_gov">[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn97063233/1946-03-28/ed-1/seq-21/ "For Sale - Boats and Motors,"] March 28, 1946, in classified ads, ''Wyandotte News-Herald'' ([[Wyandotte, Michigan]]), Section 2, page 21, Image 21, ''Chronicling America,'' [[Library of Congress]], retrieved December 7, 2022</ref><ref name="i_built_boat_2021_07_popular_mechanics">Eicher, Jim: [https://www.popularmechanics.com/home/a32473602/build-boat-plans-1935/ "I Built This Boat With A Book From 1935,"] Jun 2, 2020, ''[[Popular Mechanics]]''; also at [https://www.magzter.com/stories/Automotive/Popular-Mechanics-South-Africa/I-Built-This-Boat-With-A-Book-From-1935 ''Popular Mechanics South Africa,''] July/August 2021; retrieved November, 2021</ref> In 1931, and again in 1935, ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'' Press published ''The Boat Book: Everything of Interest to the Amateur Boatman,'' with plans for building a modified recreational boat – a Gentleman's Racer / Gentleman's Runabout, common in the 1920s and 1930s. It called for powering the boat with a Ford Model A engine – though it was not ideal, owing to weight, temperament, and carburetors that sometimes leaked fuel.<ref name="i_built_boat_2021_07_popular_mechanics" /> Nevertheless, it also powered other speedboats, as well.<ref name="in_her_blood_2022_09_03_outerbanksvoice_com">Kip Tabb: [https://www.outerbanksvoice.com/2022/09/03/its-in-her-blood-lavern-davis-parker-traces-the-history-of-boat-building-in-dare-county/ "It's in her blood: Lavern Davis Parker traces the history of boat building in Dare County,"] September 3, 2022, ''[[Outer Banks Voice]]'' retrieved December 8, 2022</ref><ref name="genesis_2019_07_11_medium_com">Martin, Antoinette Truglio: [https://medium.com/@atmrmartin/the-genesis-of-boat-passions-2aa907f1fa0b "The Genesis of Boat Passions,"] July 11, 2019, Medium.com, retrieved December 8, 2022</ref>

Other marine applications for the Model A engine have been developed – including
powering small commercial [[fishing boat]]s,<ref name="memories_1992_06_07_kitsapsun_com">[https://products.kitsapsun.com/archive/1992/06-07/245956_memories_of_the_lost_platoon.html "Memories of the lost platoon,"] June 7, 1992, ''Kitsap Sun,'' retrieved December 8, 2022</ref><ref name="simple_days_2017_05_10_kitplanes">Dye, Paul: [https://www.kitplanes.com/simple-days-pietenpol-air-camper/ Simple Days,"] May 10, 2017, ''Kitplanes,'' retrieved December 8, 2022</ref> and [[air boats]]<ref name="invenive_2022_03_28_floridatoday_com">[https://www.floridatoday.com/story/sports/outdoors/bill-sargent/2022/03/24/benny-rotgers-pioneer-airboating-along-upper-st-johns-river/7157052001/ "Sargent: Inventive uncle found ways to traverse Florida's best fishing areas more than 80 years ago,"] March 28, 2022, ''[[Florida Today]]'' retrieved December 7, 2022</ref> and boat-beaching systems.<ref name="the_early_years_wcyclub_com">[http://wcyclub.com/the-early-years.html "The Early Years,"]  The Wethersfield Cove Yacht Club, ("hauling operation, today -- Powered [with] a Ford Model A engine, [on a Ford Model A] chassis, the mechanism... pull[s] boats and docks up [out of the water, on] a marine railway..."), retrieved November 30, 2022</ref>

== Modern Developments ==
[[File:Model_A_Ford_(5790856345).jpg|thumb|right|Lots of early Fords – still active and powered by the Model A engine – at this waterfront car show, Bellingham, Washington, May 29, 2011]]
The Ford Model A engine remains in demand, chiefly to power vintage Ford Model A automobiles (an estimated 200,000<ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />) kept for recreational purposes.<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /> A very few are still used to power light aircraft, such as the Pietenpol Air Camper.<ref name="pietnenpol_aircraft_company_website">[https://www.pietenpolaircraftcompany.com/ "The Official Pietenpol Air Camper Family Website,"] retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="smile_maker_2017_08_01_aopa_org" /><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

Several individuals and enterprises have specialized in the preservation, restoration, modification, and supplying of replacement parts and modifications for the engine.<ref name="perfect_entry_2020_11_06_hagerty_com" /><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" /><ref name="ford_model_a_hemmings_com">[https://www.hemmings.com/stories/article/1928-31-ford-model-a "1928-'31 Ford Model A"] ''[[Hemmings Motor News]]'' (ends with lists of related clubs and specialists), retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="ford_suppliers_2018_09_23_hemmings_com">O'Clair, Jim: [https://www.hemmings.com/stories/article/ford-model-a-and-t-suppliers-part-2 "Ford Model A and T Suppliers Part 2,"] September 23, 2018, ''[[Hemmings Motor News]],'' (with lists of related suppliers and specialists), retrieved November 27, 2022</ref>

Additionally, Model A engine aficionado and engineer Terry Burtz, of [[Campbell, California]], after a prolonged research and development program,<ref name="re_engineering_2017_09_05_hackaday">List, Janet: [https://hackaday.com/2017/09/05/re-engineering-the-ford-model-a-engine/ "Re-Engineering The Ford Model A Engine,"] September 5, 2017, ''[[Hackaday]],'' retrieved November 28, 2022</ref><ref name="re_engineering_2021_10_23_mafca_org">[https://mafca.org/NewAEngine.html "Re-Engineering the Model A Engine,"] updated October 23, 2021, Model A Ford Club of America, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="reengineering_modelaengine_com">Burtz, Terry: [http://www.modelaengine.com/ "Reengineeering the Model A Engine,"] retrieved November 27, 2022</ref> has begun the manufacturing and sale of new Model A engine blocks, and kits for constructing an entire Model A engine, tweaked with various refinements typical of modern engines.<ref name="more_new_flatheads_2022_11_05_automotiveamerican_com">[https://automotiveamerican.com/tag/flathead/ "More New Flatheads – The Re-Engineered Model A Engine,"] November 5, 2022, ''Automotive American,'' retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="re_engineering_2021_10_23_mafca_org" /><ref name="production_run_2021_09_23_modelaengine_com">Burtz, Terry: [http://www.modelaengine.com/september-2021.html "Production run #2 Shipping Status,"], September 23, 2021, ModelAEngine.com, retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="modern_model_a_motor_2022_01_eaa_org" />

Several organizations, publications and websites support owners of vehicles that use the Model A engine,<ref name="ford_model_a_hemmings_com" /> including antique auto,<ref name="mafca">[https://www.mafca.com/ Model A Ford Club of America] (MAFCA) retrieved November 27, 2022</ref><ref name="marc">[https://model-a-ford.org/ Model A Restorers' Club] (MARC) retrieved November 27, 2022</ref> truck,<ref name="fmaatc">[https://aafords.com/p-links/about/ Ford Model AA Truck Club], retrieved November 27, 2022</ref> and tractor<ref name="tractor_kit_farmcollector_com" /><ref name="speedex_history" /> clubs, as well as experimental aircraft associations.<ref name="pietnenpol_aircraft_company_website" /><ref name="eaa">[http://www.eaa.org/ Experimental Aircraft Association], retrieved November 27, 2022</ref> These organizations often provide information and advice about the Ford Model A engine and its variants and relatives.

== Specifications (1927–1931) ==
* Type: Reciprocating piston engine
* Engine case: [[Cam-in-block#L-head|L-head]]
* Displacement: {{convert|200.5|CID|L|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />
* Cylinders: 4, vertical, inline
* Bore: {{cvt|3.876|in|mm}}<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />
* Stroke: {{cvt|4.125|in|mm}}<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />
* Compression ratio: 4.22:1<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />
* Power: {{convert|40|hp|kW PS|abbr=on}} at 2200 RPM<ref name="evolution_modelaengine_com" />
* Torque: {{cvt|128|lbft|Nm}}
* Cooling: Water-cooled<ref name="basics_model_a_ford_org" />
* Ignition: Spark plug, via distributor and coil, fed by battery and DC generator<ref name="engine_block_technical_mafca_com" /><ref name="electrical_technical_mafca_com" />
* Weight: {{cvt|350|lb|kg}} (complete engine, without flywheel and clutch assembly, but including generator, manifolds, etc.). <ref name="engine_block_technical_mafca_com" />
* Aspiration & injection: Normally aspirated via Zenith updraft [[carburetor]], fed by gravity from cowl tank.<ref name="new_line_hemmings_com" />
* Fuel: Gasoline

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.maffi.org/index.htm Model A Ford Foundation, Inc.] (MAFFI) & the Model A Ford Museum
* [https://www.mafca.com/ Model A Ford Club of America] (MAFCA)
* [https://model-a-ford.org/ Model A Restorers' Club] (MARC)
* [https://aafords.com/p-links/about/ Ford Model AA Truck Club] (FMAATC)
* [https://model-a-ford.org/top-page-1/resources/services-offered/ Canadian Model A Ford Foundation] (CMAFF) Their online library contains literature, manuals and documents unique to Canadian-built Model A's
* [https://www.hemmings.com/stories/article/1928-31-ford-model-a "1928-'31 Ford Model A"] ''[[Hemmings Motor News]]'' (ends with lists of related clubs and specialists)
* [https://mafca.org/ref_magazines.html Reference Desk - Magazines] (list of magazines relevant to the Ford Model A and its engine), MAFCA
* [http://www.mafcnj.org/system/pages/files/TJSINDEX.pdf ''Model A Ford Technical Index''] for technical articles from ''The Restorer'' (MAFCA), ''The Model A News'' (MARC), ''Model A Times,'' and ''Skinned Knuckles''; last updated December 22, 2011, Model A Ford Club of New Jersey.
* [http://www.plucks329s.org/index.htm "Pluck's 3-29s"] Ford Model A history site, with extensive documentation, some copied from Ford records, with company permission.
* [https://www.soonermodela.org/modelaenginenumbers.htm "Ford Model A Engine Number,"]  (cross-referenced to date of manufacture), Sooner Model A Club of Oklahoma. (Similar and/or additional data at [https://www.fordgarage.com/pages/ABenginenumbers.htm FordGarage.com] and at [https://www.mafca.com/ref_data.html MAFCA "Reference Desk"])
* [https://www.soonermodela.org/apps/videos/?page=17&view_type=1 "Video Gallery"] showing numerous regular and highly modified Ford Model A engines, Sooner Model A Club Of Oklahoma.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=shOqrX7dRH0 video: "Ford Model "A" Magneto Equipped Air Camper Engine,"] angelica14709 on [[YouTube]].


[[Category:Ford engines|Category:Ford Engines: Model A]]
[[Category:Products introduced in 1927]]
[[Category:Gasoline engines by model]]
[[Category:Straight-four engines]]
[[Category:Automobile engines]]
[[Category:Automotive industry]]
[[Category:Industrial equipment]]
[[Category:Tractors]]
[[Category:Aircraft engines]]