View source for Denotational semantics

{{short description|Study of programming languages via mathematical objects}}
{{Semantics}}

In [[computer science]], '''denotational semantics''' (initially known as '''mathematical semantics''' or '''Scott–Strachey semantics''') is an approach of formalizing the meanings of [[programming language]]s by constructing [[mathematical object]]s (called ''denotations'') that describe the meanings of [[Expression (computer science)|expressions]] from the languages. Other approaches providing [[formal semantics of programming languages]] include [[axiomatic semantics]] and [[operational semantics]].

Broadly speaking, denotational semantics is concerned with finding mathematical objects called [[domain theory|domains]] that represent what programs do.  For example, programs (or program phrases) might be represented by [[partial function]]s<ref name="ropas.snu.ac.kr">Dana S. Scott. [https://ropas.snu.ac.kr/~kwang/520/readings/sco70.pdf Outline of a mathematical theory of computation]. Technical Monograph PRG-2, Oxford University Computing Laboratory, Oxford, England, November 1970.</ref><ref name="Research Group Technical Monograph 1971">[[Dana Scott]] and [[Christopher Strachey]]. ''Toward a mathematical semantics for computer languages'' Oxford Programming Research Group Technical Monograph. PRG-6.  1971.</ref> or by [[Game theory|games]]<ref>Jan Jürjens. J. Games In The Semantics Of Programming Languages – An Elementary Introduction. Synthese 133, 131–158 (2002). [https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020883810034 https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020883810034]</ref> between the environment and the system.

An important tenet of denotational semantics is that ''semantics should be [[compositional]]'': the denotation of a program phrase should be built out of the denotations of its [[phrase|subphrases]].

==Historical development==
Denotational semantics originated in the work of [[Christopher Strachey]] and [[Dana Scott]] published in the early 1970s.<ref name="ropas.snu.ac.kr"/><ref name="Research Group Technical Monograph 1971"/> As originally developed by Strachey and Scott, denotational semantics provided the meaning of a computer program as a [[function (mathematics)|function]] that mapped input into output.<ref name="Research Group Technical Monograph 1971"/> To give meanings to [[Recursion|recursively defined]] programs, Scott proposed working with [[Scott continuity|continuous functions]] between [[domain theory|domains]], specifically [[complete partial order]]s. As described below, work has continued in investigating appropriate denotational semantics for aspects of programming languages such as sequentiality, [[Denotational semantics#Denotational semantics of concurrency|concurrency]], [[Nondeterministic algorithm|non-determinism]] and [[local state]].

Denotational semantics has been developed for modern programming languages that use capabilities like [[Concurrent computing|concurrency]] and [[Exception handling|exceptions]], e.g., [[Concurrent ML]],<ref>John Reppy "Concurrent ML: Design, Application and Semantics" in Springer-Verlag, ''[[Lecture Notes in Computer Science]]'', Vol. 693. 1993</ref> [[Communicating sequential processes|CSP]],<ref name=Roscoe>[[A. W. Roscoe]]. "The Theory and Practice of Concurrency" Prentice-Hall. Revised 2005.</ref> and [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]].<ref>[[Simon Peyton Jones]], Alastair Reid, Fergus Henderson, [[Tony Hoare]], and Simon Marlow. "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.50.1525&rep=rep1&type=pdf A semantics for imprecise exceptions]" Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation. 1999.</ref> The semantics of these languages is compositional in that the meaning of a phrase depends on the meanings of its subphrases. For example, the meaning of the [[Applicative programming language|applicative expression]] <code>f(E1,E2)</code> is defined in terms of semantics of its subphrases f, E1 and E2.  In a modern programming language, E1 and E2 can be evaluated concurrently and the execution of one of them might affect the other by interacting through [[Object (computer science)|shared objects]] causing their meanings to be defined in terms of each other.  Also, E1 or E2 might throw an exception which could [[Abort (computing)|terminate]] the execution of the other one. The sections below describe special cases of the semantics of these modern programming languages.

===Meanings of recursive programs===
Denotational semantics is ascribed to a program phrase as a function from an environment (holding current values of its free variables) to its denotation. For example, the phrase {{code|n*m}} produces a denotation when provided with an environment that has binding for its two free variables: {{code|n}} and {{code|m}}.  If in the environment {{code|n}} has the value 3 and {{code|m}} has the value 5, then the denotation is 15.<ref name="Research Group Technical Monograph 1971"/>

A function can be represented as a set of [[ordered pair]]s of argument and corresponding result values. For example, the set {(0,1), (4,3)} denotes a function with result 1 for argument 0, result 3 for the argument 4, and undefined otherwise.

Consider for example the [[factorial]] function, which might be defined recursively as:
<syntaxhighlight lang="c">int factorial(int n) { if (n == 0) then return 1; else return n * factorial(n-1); }</syntaxhighlight>

To provide a meaning for this recursive definition, the denotation is built up as the limit of approximations, where each approximation limits the number of calls to factorial. At the beginning, we start with no calls - hence nothing is defined. In the next approximation, we can add the ordered pair (0,1), because this doesn't require calling factorial again. Similarly we can add (1,1), (2,2), etc., adding one pair each successive approximation because computing ''factorial(n)'' requires ''n+1'' calls. In the limit we get a [[total function]] from <math>\mathbb{N}</math> to <math>\mathbb{N}</math> defined everywhere in its domain.

Formally we model each approximation as a [[partial function]]  <math>\N \rightharpoonup \N</math>. Our approximation is then repeatedly applying a function implementing "make a more defined partial factorial function", i.e. <math>F : (\N \rightharpoonup \N) \to (\N \rightharpoonup \N) </math>, starting with the [[empty function]] (empty set). ''F'' could be defined in code as follows (using <code>Map<int,int></code> for  <math>\N \rightharpoonup \N</math>):
<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">
int factorial_nonrecursive(Map<int,int> factorial_less_defined, int n)
{
  if (n == 0) then return 1;
  else if (fprev = lookup(factorial_less_defined, n-1)) then
    return n * fprev;
  else
    return NOT_DEFINED;
}

Map<int,int> F(Map<int,int> factorial_less_defined)
{ 
  Map<int,int> new_factorial = Map.empty();
  for (int n in all<int>()) {
    if (f = factorial_nonrecursive(factorial_less_defined, n) != NOT_DEFINED)
      new_factorial.put(n, f);
  }
  return new_factorial;
}
</syntaxhighlight>

Then we can introduce the notation ''F<sup>n</sup>'' to indicate [[iterated function|''F'' applied ''n'' times]].
* ''F''<sup>0</sup>({}) is the totally undefined partial function, represented as the set {};
* ''F''<sup>1</sup>({}) is the partial function represented as the set {(0,1)}: it is defined at 0, to be 1, and undefined elsewhere;
* ''F''<sup>5</sup>({}) is the partial function represented as the set {(0,1), (1,1), (2,2), (3,6), (4,24)}: it is defined for arguments 0,1,2,3,4.

This iterative process builds a sequence of partial functions from <math>\mathbb{N}</math> to <math>\mathbb{N}</math>. Partial functions form a [[chain-complete partial order]] using ⊆ as the ordering. Furthermore, this iterative process of better approximations of the factorial function forms an expansive (also called progressive) mapping because each <math>F^i\le F^{i+1}</math> using ⊆ as the ordering. So by a [[fixed-point theorem]] (specifically [[Bourbaki–Witt theorem]]), there exists a fixed point for this iterative process.

In this case, the fixed point is the least upper bound of this chain, which is the full {{code|factorial}} function, which can be expressed as the [[Union (set theory)|union]]
:<math>\bigcup_{i \in \mathbb N} F^i(\{\}). </math>

The fixed point we found is the [[least fixed point]] of ''F'', because our iteration started with the smallest element in the domain (the empty set). To prove this we need a more complex fixed point theorem such as the [[Knaster–Tarski theorem]].

===Denotational semantics of non-deterministic programs===
The concept of [[power domains]] has been developed to give a denotational semantics to non-deterministic sequential programs. Writing ''P'' for a power-domain constructor, the domain ''P''(''D'') is the domain of non-deterministic computations of type denoted by ''D''.

There are difficulties with fairness and [[Unbounded nondeterminism|unboundedness]] in domain-theoretic models of non-determinism.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Paul Blain |last=Levy |title=Amb Breaks Well-Pointedness, Ground Amb Doesn't |journal=Electron. Notes Theor. Comput. Sci. |volume=173 |pages=221–239 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.entcs.2007.02.036 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Denotational semantics of concurrency===
Many researchers have argued that the domain-theoretic models given above do not suffice for the more general case of [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrent computation]]. For this reason various [[Concurrency (computer science)#Models|new models]] have been introduced. In the early 1980s, people began using the style of denotational semantics to give semantics for concurrent languages. Examples include [[Denotational semantics of the Actor model#Clinger.27s Model|Will Clinger's work with the actor model]]; Glynn Winskel's work with event structures and [[Petri nets]];<ref>''[https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~gw104/eventStructures82.pdf Event Structure Semantics for CCS and Related Languages]''. DAIMI Research Report, University of Aarhus, 67 pp., April 1983.</ref> and the work by Francez, Hoare, Lehmann, and de Roever (1979) on trace semantics for CSP.<ref>[[Nissim Francez]], [[C. A. R. Hoare]], Daniel Lehmann, and [[Willem-Paul de Roever]].  "[https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/24888/francez_79_Semantics+of+nondeterminism.pdf?sequence=1 Semantics of nondeterminism, concurrency, and communication]", ''Journal of Computer and System Sciences''.  December 1979.</ref> All these lines of inquiry remain under investigation (see e.g. the various denotational models for CSP<ref name=Roscoe/>).

Recently, Winskel and others have proposed the category of [[profunctor]]s as a domain theory for concurrency.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Gian Luca |last1=Cattani |first2=Glynn |last2=Winskel |title=Profunctors, open maps and bisimulation |journal=Mathematical Structures in Computer Science |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=553–614 |year=2005 |doi= 10.1017/S0960129505004718|citeseerx=10.1.1.111.6243 |s2cid=16356708 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Mikkel |last1=Nygaard |first2=Glynn |last2=Winskel |title=Domain theory for concurrency |journal=Theor. Comput. Sci. |volume=316 |issue=1–3 |pages=153–190 |year=2004 |doi=10.1016/j.tcs.2004.01.029 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Denotational semantics of state===
State (such as a heap) and simple [[imperative programming|imperative features]] can be straightforwardly modeled in the denotational semantics described above. The key idea is to consider a command as a partial function on some domain of states. The meaning of "{{code|1=x:=3}}" is then the function that takes a state to the state with {{code|3}} assigned to {{code|x}}. The sequencing operator "{{code|;}}" is denoted by composition of functions. Fixed-point constructions are then used to give a semantics to looping constructs, such as "{{code|while}}".

Things become more difficult in modelling programs with local variables. One approach is to no longer work with domains, but instead to interpret types as [[functor]]s from some category of worlds to a category of domains. Programs are then denoted by [[natural transformation|natural]] continuous functions between these functors.<ref>[[Peter W. O'Hearn]], John Power, [[Robert D. Tennent]], Makoto Takeyama. Syntactic control of interference revisited. ''Electron. Notes Theor. Comput. Sci.'' 1. 1995.</ref><ref>Frank J. Oles. ''A Category-Theoretic Approach to the Semantics of Programming''. PhD thesis, [[Syracuse University]], New York, USA. 1982.</ref>

===Denotations of data types===
Many programming languages allow users to define [[recursive data type]]s. For example, the type of lists of numbers can be specified by
<syntaxhighlight lang=sml>datatype list = Cons of nat * list | Empty</syntaxhighlight>
This section deals only with functional data structures that cannot change.  Conventional imperative programming languages would typically allow the elements of such a recursive list to be changed.

For another example: the type of denotations of the [[untyped lambda calculus]] is
<syntaxhighlight lang=sml>datatype D = D of (D → D)</syntaxhighlight>
The problem of ''solving domain equations'' is concerned with finding domains that model these kinds of datatypes. One approach, roughly speaking, is to consider the collection of all domains as a domain itself, and then solve the recursive definition there.

[[Polymorphism (computer science)|Polymorphic data types]] are data types that are defined with a parameter. For example, the type of α {{code|list}}s is defined by
<syntaxhighlight lang=sml>datatype α list = Cons of α * α list | Empty</syntaxhighlight>
Lists of natural numbers, then, are of type {{code|nat list}}, while lists of strings are of {{code|string list}}.

Some researchers have developed domain theoretic models of polymorphism. Other researchers have also modeled [[parametric polymorphism]] within constructive set theories.

A recent research area has involved denotational semantics for object and class based programming languages.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Bernhard |last1=Reus |first2=Thomas |last2=Streicher |title=Semantics and logic of object calculi |journal=Theor. Comput. Sci. |volume=316|issue=1 |pages=191–213 |year=2004 |doi=10.1016/j.tcs.2004.01.030 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Denotational semantics for programs of restricted complexity===
Following the development of programming languages based on [[linear logic]], denotational semantics have been given to languages for linear usage (see e.g. [[proof net]]s, [[Coherent space|coherence spaces]]) and also polynomial time complexity.<ref>{{cite journal |first=P. |last=Baillot |title=Stratified coherence spaces: a denotational semantics for Light Linear Logic |journal=Theor. Comput. Sci. |volume=318 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–55 |year=2004 |doi=10.1016/j.tcs.2003.10.015 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Denotational semantics of sequentiality===
The problem of full [[Denotational semantics#Abstraction|abstraction]] for the sequential programming language [[Programming language for Computable Functions|PCF]] was, for a long time, a big open question in denotational semantics. The difficulty with PCF is that it is a very sequential language. For example, there is no way to define the [[logical disjunction#parallel-or|parallel-or]] function in PCF. It is for this reason that the approach using domains, as introduced above, yields a denotational semantics that is not fully abstract.

This open question was mostly resolved in the 1990s with the development of [[game semantics]] and also with techniques involving [[logical relations]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=P.W. |last1=O'Hearn |first2=J.G. |last2=Riecke |title=Kripke Logical Relations and PCF |journal=Information and Computation |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=107–116 |date=July 1995 |doi=10.1006/inco.1995.1103 |s2cid=6886529 |url=https://surface.syr.edu/lcsmith_other/3 |doi-access=free }}</ref> For more details, see the page on PCF.

===Denotational semantics as source-to-source translation===
It is often useful to translate one programming language into another. For example, a concurrent programming language might be translated into a [[process calculus]]; a high-level programming language might be translated into byte-code. (Indeed, conventional denotational semantics can be seen as the interpretation of programming languages into the [[internal language]] of the category of domains.)

In this context, notions from denotational semantics, such as full abstraction, help to satisfy security concerns.<ref>Martin Abadi. "Protection in programming-language translations". ''Proc. of ICALP'98''. LNCS 1443. 1998.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Andrew |last=Kennedy |title=Securing the .NET programmingmodel |journal=Theor. Comput. Sci. |volume=364 |issue=3 |pages=311–7 |year=2006|doi=10.1016/j.tcs.2006.08.014 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Abstraction==
It is often considered important to connect denotational semantics with [[operational semantics]]. This is especially important when the denotational semantics is rather mathematical and abstract, and the operational semantics is more concrete or closer to the computational intuitions. The following properties of a denotational semantics are often of interest.
#'''Syntax independence''': The denotations of programs should not involve the syntax of the source language.
#'''Adequacy (or soundness)''': All [[observational equivalence|observably distinct]] programs have distinct denotations;
#'''Full abstraction''': All observationally equivalent programs have equal denotations.

For semantics in the traditional style, adequacy and full abstraction may be understood roughly as the requirement that "operational equivalence coincides with denotational equality". For denotational semantics in more intensional models, such as the [[actor model]] and [[process calculi]], there are different notions of equivalence within each model, and so the concepts of adequacy and of full abstraction are a matter of debate, and harder to pin down.  Also the mathematical structure of operational semantics and denotational semantics can become very close.

Additional desirable properties we may wish to hold between operational and denotational semantics are:
#'''Constructivism''': [[Constructivism (mathematics)|Constructivism]] is concerned with whether domain elements can be shown to exist by constructive methods.
#'''Independence of denotational and operational semantics''': The denotational semantics should be formalized using mathematical structures that are independent of the operational semantics of a programming language; However, the underlying concepts can be closely related. See the section on [[Denotational semantics#Compositionality|Compositionality]] below.
#'''Full completeness''' or '''definability''': Every morphism of the semantic model should be the denotation of a program.<ref>{{cite journal
  | last = Curien	
  | first = Pierre-Louis
  | title = Definability and Full Abstraction
  | journal = Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science
  | volume = 172
  | pages = 301–310
  | doi = 10.1016/j.entcs.2007.02.011
  | year = 2007 | doi-access = free
  }}</ref>

==Compositionality==
An important aspect of denotational semantics of programming languages is compositionality, by which the denotation of a program is constructed from denotations of its parts.  For example, consider the expression "7 + 4".  Compositionality in this case is to provide a meaning for "7 + 4" in terms of the meanings of "7", "4" and "+".

A basic denotational semantics in domain theory is compositional because it is given as follows. We start by considering program fragments, i.e. programs with free variables. A ''typing context'' assigns a type to each free variable. For instance, in the expression (''x'' + ''y'') might be considered in a typing context (''x'':{{code|nat}},''y'':{{code|nat}}). We now give a denotational semantics to program fragments, using the following scheme.
#We begin by describing the meaning of the types of our language: the meaning of each type must be a domain. We write 〚τ〛 for the domain denoting the type τ. For instance, the meaning of type {{code|nat}} should be the domain of natural numbers: 〚{{code|nat}}〛= <math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>.
#From the meaning of types we derive a meaning for typing contexts. We set 〚 ''x''<sub>1</sub>:τ<sub>1</sub>,..., ''x''<sub>n</sub>:τ<sub>n</sub>〛 = 〚 τ<sub>1</sub>〛× ... ×〚τ<sub>n</sub>〛. For instance, 〚''x'':{{code|nat}},''y'':{{code|nat}}〛= <math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>×<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>. As a special case, the meaning of the empty typing context, with no variables, is the domain with one element, denoted 1.
#Finally, we must give a meaning to each program-fragment-in-typing-context. Suppose that ''P'' is a program fragment of type σ, in typing context Γ, often written Γ⊢''P'':σ. Then the meaning of this program-in-typing-context must be a continuous function 〚Γ⊢''P'':σ〛:〚Γ〛→〚σ〛. For instance, 〚⊢7:{{code|nat}}〛:1→<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub> is the constantly "7" function, while 〚''x'':{{code|nat}},''y'':{{code|nat}}⊢''x''+''y'':{{code|nat}}〛:<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>×<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>→<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub> is the function that adds two numbers.

Now, the meaning of the compound expression (7+4) is determined by composing the three functions 〚⊢7:{{code|nat}}〛:1→<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>, 〚⊢4:{{code|nat}}〛:1→<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>, and 〚''x'':{{code|nat}},''y'':{{code|nat}}⊢''x''+''y'':{{code|nat}}〛:<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>×<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>→<math>\mathbb{N}</math><sub>⊥</sub>.

In fact, this is a general scheme for compositional denotational semantics. There is nothing specific about domains and continuous functions here. One can work with a different [[category (mathematics)|category]] instead. For example, in game semantics, the category of games has games as objects and strategies as morphisms: we can interpret types as games, and programs as strategies. For a simple language without general recursion, we can make do with the [[Category of sets|category of sets and functions]]. For a language with side-effects, we can work in the [[Kleisli category]] for a monad. For a language with state, we can work in a [[functor category]]. [[Robin Milner|Milner]] has advocated modelling location and interaction by working in a category with interfaces as objects and ''[[bigraphs]]'' as morphisms.<ref>{{cite book |first=Robin |last=Milner |title=The Space and Motion of Communicating Agents |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-73833-0 }} [https://blog.itu.dk/SMDS-F2010/files/2010/04/milner-2009-the-space-and-motion-of-communicating-agents.pdf 2009 draft] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402095417/https://blog.itu.dk/SMDS-F2010/files/2010/04/milner-2009-the-space-and-motion-of-communicating-agents.pdf |date=2012-04-02 }}.</ref>

==Semantics versus implementation==
According to Dana Scott (1980):<ref>"What is Denotational Semantics?", MIT Laboratory for Computer Science Distinguished Lecture Series, 17 April 1980, cited in Clinger (1981).</ref>
:''It is not necessary for the semantics to determine an implementation, but it should provide criteria for showing that an implementation is correct.''

According to Clinger (1981):<ref name="clinger1981">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=William D. |last=Clinger |title=Foundations of Actor Semantics |date=May 1981 |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |id=AITR-633 |hdl=1721.1/6935 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|79}}
:''Usually, however, the formal semantics of a conventional sequential programming language may itself be interpreted to provide an (inefficient) implementation of the language.  A formal semantics need not always provide such an implementation, though, and to believe that semantics must provide an implementation leads to confusion about the formal semantics of concurrent languages.  Such confusion is painfully evident when the presence of unbounded nondeterminism in a programming language's semantics is said to imply that the programming language cannot be implemented.''

==Connections to other areas of computer science==
Some work in denotational semantics has interpreted types as domains in the sense of domain theory, which can be seen as a branch of [[model theory]], leading to connections with [[type theory]] and [[category theory]]. Within computer science, there are connections with [[abstract interpretation]], [[program verification]], and [[model checking]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
;Textbooks
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Milne |first1=R.E. |title=A theory of programming language semantics |last2=Strachey |first2=C. |year=1976 |isbn=978-1-5041-2833-9 |author-link2=Christopher Strachey}}
*{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=M.J.C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s4jTBwAAQBAJ |title=The Denotational Description of Programming Languages: An Introduction |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-6228-2 |author-link=Michael J. C. Gordon |orig-date=1979}}
*{{Cite book |last=Stoy |first=Joseph E. |title=Denotational Semantics: The Scott-Strachey Approach to Programming Language Semantics |publisher=MIT Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-262-19147-0 |author-link=Joe Stoy}} (A classic if dated textbook.)
*{{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=David A. |title=Denotational semantics: a methodology for language development |publisher=Allyn & Bacon |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-205-10450-5}}
**out of print now; free electronic version available: {{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=David A. |url=https://people.cs.ksu.edu/~schmidt/text/densem.html |title=Denotational Semantics: A Methodology for Language Development |publisher=Kansas State University |year=1997 |orig-date=1986}}
*{{Cite book |last=Gunter |first=Carl |title=Semantics of Programming Languages: Structures and Techniques |publisher=MIT Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-262-07143-7}}
*{{Cite book |last=Winskel |first=Glynn |title=Formal Semantics of Programming Languages |publisher=MIT Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-262-73103-4}}
*{{Cite book |last=Tennent |first=R.D. |title=Semantic Structures |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-853762-5 |editor-last=Abramsky |editor-first=S. |series=Handbook of logic in computer science |volume=3 |pages=169–322 |chapter=Denotational semantics |ref={{harvid|Abramsky|Gabbay|Maibaum|1994}} |editor-last2=Gabbay |editor-first2=Dov M. |editor-last3=Maibaum |editor-first3=T.S.E.}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Abramsky |first1=S. |title={{harvnb|Abramsky|Gabbay|Maibaum|1994}} |last2=Jung |first2=A. |year=1994 |chapter=Domain theory |author-link=Samson Abramsky |chapter-url=http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~axj/pub/papers/handy1.pdf}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Stoltenberg-Hansen |first1=V. |url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicaltheo0000stol |title=Mathematical Theory of Domains |last2=Lindström |first2=I. |last3=Griffor |first3=E.R. |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-38344-8 |url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}
; Lecture notes
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite web |last=Winskel |first=Glynn |title=Denotational Semantics |url=http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~gw104/dens.pdf |publisher=University of Cambridge}} 
{{refend}}
;Other references
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Greif |first=Irene |title=Semantics of Communicating Parallel Processes |date=August 1975 |degree=PhD |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/57710/02200859-MIT.pdf |series=Project MAC |id=ADA016302}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Plotkin |first=G.D. |author-link=Gordon Plotkin |year=1976 |title=A powerdomain construction |journal=SIAM J. Comput. |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=452–487 |citeseerx=10.1.1.158.4318 |doi=10.1137/0205035}}
*{{Cite book |last=Dijkstra |first=Edsger W. |title=A Discipline of Programming |date=1976 |isbn=0-13-215871-X |series=Prentice-Hall series in automatic computation |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |oclc=1958445 |author-link=Edsger Dijkstra}}
*{{Cite book 
|last1=Apt |first1=Krzysztof R.|author-link1=Krzysztof R. Apt
|title=Exercises in denotational semantics 
|last2=de Bakker |first2=J. W. |date=1976 
|publisher=Mathematisch Centrum |series=Afdeling Informatica |location=Amsterdam |language=English |oclc=63400684}}
*{{Cite journal |last=De Bakker |first=J.W. |date=1976 |title=Least Fixed Points Revisited |journal=Theoretical Computer Science |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=155–181 |doi=10.1016/0304-3975(76)90031-1 |doi-access=free}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Smyth |first=Michael B. |year=1978 |title=Power domains |journal=J. Comput. Syst. Sci. |volume=16 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.1016/0022-0000(78)90048-X |doi-access=free}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Francez |first1=Nissim |title=Semantics of nondeterminism, concurrency, and communication |last2=Hoare |first2=C.A.R. |last3=Lehmann |first3=Daniel |last4=de Roever |first4=Willem-Paul |date=December 1979 |work=Journal of Computer and System Sciences |isbn=978-3-540-08921-6 |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=64 |pages=191–200 |doi=10.1007/3-540-08921-7_67 |hdl=1874/15886}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Lynch |first1=Nancy |title=Semantics of concurrent computation: proceedings of the international symposium, Évian, France, July 2-4, 1979 |last2=Fischer |first2=Michael J. |publisher=Springer |year=1979 |isbn=978-3-540-09511-8 |editor-last=Kahn |editor-first=G. |chapter=On describing the behavior of distributed systems |ref={{harvid|Kahn|1979}} |author-link=Nancy Lynch |author-link2=Michael J. Fischer |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLgqAQAAIAAJ}}
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*{{Cite book |last=Wadge |first=William |title={{harvnb|Kahn|1979}} |year=1979 |chapter=An extensional treatment of dataflow deadlock}}
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*{{Cite book |last=Allison |first=L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIdF11msK58C |title=A Practical Introduction to Denotational Semantics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-31423-7}}
*{{Cite journal |last1=America |first1=P. |last2=de Bakker |first2=J. |last3=Kok |first3=J.N. |last4=Rutten |first4=J. |year=1989 |title=Denotational semantics of a parallel object-oriented language |url=https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/1602 |journal=Information and Computation |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=152–205 |doi=10.1016/0890-5401(89)90057-6|s2cid=2405175 |doi-access=free }}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Haskell|Denotational semantics}}
* [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~lloyd/tilde/Semantics/ ''Denotational Semantics'']. Overview of book by Lloyd Allison
* {{cite web |first=Wolfgang |last=Schreiner |title=Structure of Programming Languages I: Denotational Semantics |date=1995 |work=Course notes  |url=http://www.risc.uni-linz.ac.at/people/schreine/courses/densem/densem.html}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Denotational Semantics}}
[[Category:Denotational semantics| ]]
[[Category:1970 in computing]]
[[Category:Logic in computer science]]
[[Category:Models of computation]]
[[Category:Formal specification languages]]
[[Category:Programming language semantics]]

[[es:Semántica denotacional]]