View source for Exercise Strikeback

{{short description|Naval exercise}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{operational plan
| name        = Exercise Strikeback
| partof      = [[Cold War (1953–1962)]]
| image       = GIUK gap.png
| caption     = The "[[GIUK Gap]]"
| scope       = 
| type        = [[NATO]] multi-lateral naval training exercise
| location    = [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]], [[GIUK Gap]], [[Norwegian Sea]]
| coordinates = 
| map_type    = 
| latitude    = 
| longitude   = 
| map_size    = 
| map_caption = 
| map_label   = 
| planned     = 
| planned_by  = [[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic]]
| objective   = Deployment of [[NATO]] anti-submarine warfare and aircraft carrier strike forces
| target      = 
| date        = 3–12 September 1957
| time        =
| time-begin  = 
| time-end    = 
| timezone    =
| executed_by = [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Robert B. Pirie]], [[United States Navy|USN]], Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic (STRIKFLTLANT)
| outcome     = Exercise successfully executed.
| casualties  = 
| fatalities  =
| injuries    =
}}

'''Exercise Strikeback''' aka '''Operation Strikeback''' was a major [[Navy|naval]] [[Military exercise|exercise]] of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) that took place over a ten-day period in September 1957.

As part of a series of exercises to simulate an all-out [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] attack on [[NATO]], Exercise Strikeback was tasked with two objectives.  Its initial objective was the deployment of NATO's naval forces (designated the "Blue Fleet") against other NATO forces attempting to simulate an "enemy" navy that featured a large number of submarines (designated the "Orange Fleet").  Its other objective was to have the Blue Fleet execute [[Alpha strike (United States Navy)|carrier-based air strikes]] against "enemy" formations and emplacements along NATO's northern flank in [[Norway]].

Exercise Strikeback involved over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 75,000 personnel from the [[United States Navy]], the [[Royal Navy]], the [[Royal Canadian Navy]], the [[French Navy]], the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]], and the [[Royal Norwegian Navy]].  As the largest peacetime naval operation up to that time, military reporter [[Hanson W. Baldwin]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'' said Exercise Strikeback gathered "the strongest striking fleet assembled since World War II."<ref>{{cite news |last=Baldwin |first=Hanson W. |author-link=Hanson W. Baldwin |date=22 September 1957 |title=100 Fighting Ships in Vast Exercise |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1957/09/22/archives/100-fighting-ships-in-vast-exercise-strongest-part-of-nato-force-in.html |access-date=28 September 2009}}</ref>

Strikeback and the other concurrent NATO exercises held during the fall of 1957 would be the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.<ref>{{cite book |last=Key Jr. |first=David M. |year=2001 |title=Admiral Jerauld Wright:  Warrior among Diplomats |publisher=Sunflower University Press |location=Manhattan, Kansas |isbn=978-0-89745-251-9 |pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Emergency Call">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628231338/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 June 2011 |title=Emergency Call |access-date=3 October 2008 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=30 September 1957}}</ref>

==Background==
===Strategic overview===
Faced with the overwhelming numerical superiority of [[Soviet Union]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the [[nuclear umbrella]] to protect [[Western Europe]] from a Soviet ground invasion.<ref name="Chapter 9">{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/9.htm |title=Chapter 9 |access-date=3 November 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/3.htm |title=Chapter 3 |access-date=3 November 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm |title=Chapter 7 |access-date=3 November 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/annexes/b5.htm |title=Chapter IX-B |access-date=3 November 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref>  This strategy was initially articulated in January 1954 by [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[General (United States)|General]] and then-[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] [[Alfred Gruenther]]: 
{{Quote|We have&nbsp;... an air-ground shield which, although still not strong enough, would force an enemy to concentrate prior to attack. In doing so, the concentrating force would be extremely vulnerable to losses from atomic weapon attacks&nbsp;...  We can now use atomic weapons against an aggressor, delivered not only by long-range aircraft, but also by the use of shorter range planes, and by 280&nbsp;mm. artillery&nbsp;...  This air-ground team constitutes a very effective shield, and it would fight very well in case of attack.<ref name="Chapter 9"/>}}

This strategic concept reflected the American strategy of [[massive retaliation]] of the [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower administration]] as set forth by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Foster Dulles]]:

{{Quote|We need allies and [[collective security]]. Our purpose is to make these relations more effective, less costly. This can be done by placing more reliance on deterrent power and less dependence on local defensive power&nbsp;...  Local defense will always be important.  But there is no local defense which alone will contain the mighty landpower of the Communist world. Local defenses must be reinforced by the further deterrent of massive retaliatory power. A potential aggressor must know that he cannot always prescribe battle conditions that suit him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/article-dulles-retaliation_1962-01-25.htm |title=The Evolution of Foreign Policy |access-date=9 April 2008 |author=John Foster Dulles |author-link=John Foster Dulles |date=12 January 1954 |publisher=Department of State, Press Release No. 81 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514020511/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/article-dulles-retaliation_1962-01-25.htm |archive-date=2008-05-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

===NATO military command structure===
[[File:NATO Commands 1954.jpg|thumb|right|NATO military command and areas of responsibilities (1954)]]

With the establishment of NATO's Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) on 30 January 1952, the [[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic|Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT)]] joined the previously-created Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) as one of the alliance's two principal parts of the [[NATO Military Command Structure]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm |title=Chapter 7 - The Military Structure - Atlantic Command |access-date=3 January 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref>  In addition, [[Allied Command Channel]]  was established on 21 February 1952 to control the [[English Channel]] and [[North Sea]] area and deny it to the enemy, protect the sea lanes of communication, and Support operations conducted by SACEUR and SACLANT.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm |title=Chapter 7 - The Military Structure - Channel Command and Channel Committee |access-date=3 September 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/appendices/1.htm |title=Appendix 1 — Chronicle |access-date=3 September 2008 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref>  The following key NATO military commands were involved in a series of alliance-wide exercises, including Operation Strikeback, during the Fall of 1957.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cv/ace-k-p.pdf |format=PDF |title=Who is who at NATO |access-date=3 October 2008 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Key, Jr. |first=David M. |year=2001 |title=Admiral Jerauld Wright: Warrior among Diplomats |publisher=Sunflower University Press |location=Manhattan, Kansas |isbn=0-89745-251-8 |pages=329–331, 334–335, 338–342, 357}}, hereafter referred to as ''Warrior among Diplomats''.</ref>

* '''Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT)'''
* '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic|Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Jerauld Wright]], [[United States Navy]]
** '''Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (DSACLANT)''' &ndash; [[Vice-Admiral#United Kingdom|Vice-Admiral]] Sir [[John Eaton (Royal Navy officer)|John Eaton]], [[Royal Navy|RN]]
*** '''Chief of Staff (COFS)''' &ndash; [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Harold Page Smith]], [[United States Navy]]
** '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic#Allied Command Eastern Atlantic .28EASTLANT.29|Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Vice Admiral#United Kingdom|Vice Admiral]] Sir John Eccles, [[Royal Navy|RN]]
** '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic#Allied Command Western Atlantic .28WESTLANT.29|Western Atlantic Area (WESTLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Jerauld Wright]], [[United States Navy]]
** '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic#Striking Fleet Atlantic .28STRIKFLTLANT.29|Striking Fleet Atlantic (STRIKFLTLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Robert B. Pirie]], [[United States Navy]]
*'''Allied Command Europe'''
* '''[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)]]''' &ndash; [[General (United States)|General]] [[Lauris Norstad]], [[USAF]]
** '''Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR)''' &ndash; [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|The Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]], [[British Army]]
*** '''Chief of Staff (COFS)''' &ndash; [[General (United States)|General]] [[Cortlandt V.R. Schuyler|Courtlandt Van R. Schuyler]], [[United States Army|USA]]
** '''[[Allied Forces Northern Europe|Allied Forces Northern Europe (AFNORTH)]]''' &ndash; [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] Sir C.S. Sugden, [[British Army]]
** '''[[Allied Forces Central Europe|Allied Forces Central Europe (AFCENT)]]''' &ndash; [[Army General (France)|Général d'Armée]] [[Jean-Étienne Valluy]], [[French Army]]
*** '''[[Allied Air Forces Central Europe]] (AAFCE)''' &ndash; [[Air Chief Marshal]] [[George Mills (RAF officer)|Sir George Holroyd Mills]], [[RAF]]
*** '''[[Northern Army Group]] (NORTHAG)''' &ndash; [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Richard Nelson Gale|Sir Richard Nelson Gale]], [[British Army]]
*** '''[[Allied Force Command Heidelberg|Central Army Group]] (CENTAG)''' &ndash; [[General (United States)|General]] [[Henry I. Hodes]], [[United States Army|USA]]
** '''[[Allied Forces Southern Europe]] (AFSOUTH)''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] R.P.M. Bristol, [[United States Navy]]
*** '''[[Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe]] (STRIKFORSOUTH)''' &ndash; [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] Charles R. Brown, [[United States Navy]]
** '''[[Allied Forces Mediterranean]] (AFMED)''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Admiral]] Sir [[Ralph Edwards (Royal Navy officer)|Ralph Edwards]], [[Royal Navy|RN]]
*'''[[Allied Command Channel]] (CHANCOM)'''
* Commander-in-Chief Channel (CINCHAN) &ndash; [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Admiral]] Sir [[Guy Grantham]], [[Royal Navy|RN]]

==Operational history==
As part of the response to a theoretical Soviet attack against NATO on all fronts, Operation Strikeback would test the capabilities of Allied naval forces (''Blue Fleet'') by tasking them to destroy the enemy navy (''Orange Fleet'') and its huge submarine fleet, protect transatlantic shipping, and undertake sustained carrier-based air strikes against the enemy positions.<ref>''Warrior among Diplomats''. p. 333 - 334</ref>

Beginning on 3 September 1957, American and Canadian naval forces got underway to join British, French, Dutch, and Norwegian naval forces in eastern Atlantic and northern European waters under the overall command of [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Robert B. Pirie]], [[United States Navy]], Commander, [[United States Second Fleet]], acting as NATO's Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic.<ref>{{cite DANFS |title=Saratoga |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s6/saratoga-vi.htm |access-date=3 October 2008}}</ref>  While en route, the U.S.-Canadian naval forces executed ''Operation Seaspray'', a bilateral naval exercise to protect Blue Fleet's vitally-important underway replenishment group (URG) from enemy submarine attacks.<ref>{{cite book |last=USS ''Wasp'' Veterans Association |year=1999 |title=U. S. S. Wasp CV 18 |publisher=Turner Publishing Company |location=Nashville |isbn=978-1-56311-404-5 |pages=119}}, hereafter referred to as ''USS Wasp''</ref> The nuclear submarine {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|2}} and the conventional submarine {{USS|Trigger|SS-564|2}} completed operations in the Arctic and joined 34 other U.S. and allied submarines temporarily assigned to the Orange Fleet.<ref name="DorsetEcho">{{cite web |url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html |title=The day Nautilus came to Portland |access-date=3 October 2008 |work=Archive |publisher=Dorset Echo |date=5 October 2007 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7)|USS ''Mount McKinley'']] was based in [[HMNB Portsmouth|Portsmouth Naval Base]] as the command communications base for the Orange forces controlling Comsuborangelant/Comphiborangelant for the duration of the Exercise.

Operation Strikeback itself began on 19 September 1957, involving over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 65,000 personnel.  To provide a more realistic simulation of protecting transatlantic shipping, over 200 merchant marine vessels, including the [[ocean liner]]s {{RMS|Queen Mary|3=2}} and {{SS|Ile de France|3=2}}, also participated as duly-flagged target ships for the exercise.<ref name="DorsetEcho"/>  Blue Fleet hunter-killer (HUK) groups centered around the carriers {{USS|Essex|CV-9|2}}, {{USS|Wasp|CV-18|2}}, and {{USS|Tarawa|CV-40|2}}, as well as submarines and land-based anti-submarine patrol aircraft, executed ''Operation Fend Off/Operation Fishplay'' to identify, track, and contain the breakout of the enemy Orange Fleet's submarine force along the [[Greenland]]-[[Iceland]]-UK gap ([[GIUK gap]]").<ref>''USS Wasp'', p. 118</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/5748 |title=Norwegian subs during the Cold War |access-date=3 October 2008 |publisher=Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards}}</ref>

Operating above the [[Arctic Circle]] in the [[Norwegian Sea]], the Blue Fleet, which included the new aircraft carriers {{USS|Saratoga|CV-60|2}} and {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|2}}, launched carried-based air strikes against enemy positions in [[Norway]].  [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine provided the following contemporary coverage of Operation Strikeback:

{{Quote|From somewhere southeast of Greenland came the crackle of an urgent radio message: "Being fired on by Orange surface raider. ''Inchcliffe Castle''."<ref>''Inchcliffe Castle'' is a fictional ship from the ''Satevepost Glencannon'' stories by [[Guy Gilpatric]].</ref> With that alert from a famed but fictitious merchant vessel, simulated hell broke loose in the North Atlantic. Out to punish the "aggressors," a six-nation Blue fleet totaling nearly 160 fighting ships began steaming toward Norway. In the Iceland-Faeroes gap, 36 Orange submarines, including the atom-powered {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|2}}, lay in wait. The [[USS Charles R. Ware (DD-865)|U.S. destroyer ''Charles R. Ware'']] was "sunk"; a "torpedo" slowed down the carrier [[USS Wasp (CV-18)|U.S.S. ''Intrepid'']],{{clarify|reson= Why is ''Wasp'' linked but ''Intrepid'' named?|date=September 2017}} and [[HMS Ark Royal (R09)|H.M.S. ''Ark Royal'']] had a hot time beating off the assaults of Britain-based [[Vickers Valiant|Valiant jet bombers]]. But by early afternoon, Blue carrier planes got through to make dummy atom attacks on Norway's ports, bridges and airfields. Into the midst of this earnest make-believe strayed a Russian trawler - a real one. The Russian, being overtaken, had the right of way and held it, passing diagonally through the entire NATO fleet as the big ships refueled and moved beyond her.<ref name="Emergency Call" />}}

[[File:USS Nautilus SSN-571 -underway.jpg|thumb|right|USS ''Nautilus'']]
[[File:USS Valley Forge (CVS-45) underway with Task Group Alfa, in 1959 (USN 1043094).jpg|thumb|right|U.S. Navy ASW Task Force Alfa (1959)]]

Following the conclusion of Operation Strikeback, U.S. naval forces conducted ''Operation Pipedown'', involving the protection of its underway replenishment group while en route back the United States.<ref>''USS Wasp'', p. 119</ref>

SACLANT [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Jerauld Wright]], [[United States Navy]],  described Operation Strikeback as being "remarkably successful" while also noting "[that] there is considerable scarcity of both naval and air forces in the eastern Atlantic."<ref>''Warrior among Diplomats'', p. 334</ref>  Wright's Eastern Atlantic allied commander, [[Vice Admiral#United Kingdom|Vice Admiral]] Sir John Eccles, [[Royal Navy|RN]], also noted:

{{quote|I am not in a position to criticize political decisions, but I say this as a professional man with over 40 years' experience — I cannot carry out my task as given to me at the moment without more forces. In recent years the submarine has, without any doubt at all, gone a very long way ahead of the devices with which we are presently equipped to sound and destroy it.<ref name="Time 19571007"/> }}

Particularly significant was the performance of [[nuclear powered submarine|nuclear-powered submarines]] with the U.S. Navy's first two such vessels, the {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571}} and {{USS|Seawolf|SSN-575}}, participating in Operation Strikeback.  According to naval analyst-historian [[Norman Friedman]], ''Nautilus'' "presented a greater threat than all 21 snorkel submarines combined" during Operation Strikeback, making 16 successful attacks against various naval formations while maintaining effective on-station tactical and high-speed pursuit capabilities.  ''Nautilus'' cruised 3,384 nautical miles (6,267&nbsp;km) with an average speed of 14.4 knots (26.7&nbsp;km/h).<ref>{{cite book |last=Friedman |first=Norman |year=1994 |title=U.S. Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |location=[[Annapolis Maryland]] |isbn=1-55750-260-9 |pages=109}}</ref>  In addition to the ''Nautilus'', the ''Seawolf'' departed [[Naval Submarine Base New London|New London]] on 3 September for Operation Strikeback.  Before she surfaced off [[Naval Station Newport|Newport, Rhode Island]], on 25 September, ''Seawolf'' had remained submerged for 16 days, cruising a total of 6,331 miles (10,189&nbsp;km).  Recognizing the need to meet this [[Anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW) challenge, the following actions were taken:

* Task Force Alfa was created  by the U.S. Navy to develop improved ASW tactics and technology by integrating carrier-based ASW aircraft, land-based patrol aircraft, refitted destroyers, and hunter-killer submarines.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Benedict |first=John R. |date=Spring 2005 |title=The Unraveling and Revitalization of U.S. Navy Antisubmarine Warfare |journal=Naval War College Review |pages=98 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863701,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906183515/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863701,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 September 2008 |title=The Goblin Killers |access-date=3 November 2008 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=1 September 1958}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863224,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024204907/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863224,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 October 2012 |title=Antisubmarine Boss |access-date=3 November 2008 |magazine=Time |date=7 April 1958}}</ref>
* [[NATO Undersea Research Centre]] was established by SACLANT on 2 May 1959 in [[La Spezia, Italy]], to serve as a clearinghouse for NATO's anti-submarine efforts.<ref>''Warrior among Diplomats'', p. 357</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nurc.nato.int/about/history.htm |title=History |access-date=3 November 2008 |publisher=NATO Undersea Research Centre |archive-date=18 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618163418/http://www.nurc.nato.int/about/history.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Operation Strikeback was the final deployment for the [[battleship]]s {{USS|Iowa|BB-61|2}} and {{USS|Wisconsin|BB-64|2}} until their re-activation in the 1980s by the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan Administration]].  Finally, on the technical level, Operation Strikeback saw the first use of [[Single-sideband modulation|single sideband]] (SSB) voice communications for tactical operations by the [[United States Navy]],<ref>''Chronological History – U.S. Naval Communications'', p. 16</ref> and {{HMS|Bulwark|R08|6}} was the first [[Royal Navy]] carrier to use a [[Loop antenna#Small loops|magnetic loop]] communication system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fleetairarmarchive.net/Ships/Bulwark.html |title=HMS ''Bulwark'' |access-date=3 September 2008 |publisher=Fleet Air Arm Archives |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322175446/http://fleetairarmarchive.net/Ships/Bulwark.html |archive-date=22 March 2015 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

In addition to Operation Strikeback, which concentrated on its eastern Atlantic/northern European flank, NATO also conducted two other major military exercises in September 1957, Operation Counter Punch involving [[Allied Forces Central Europe]] on the European mainland and [[Operation Deep Water]] involving NATO's southern flank in the Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="Emergency Call"/><ref name="Time 19571007">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628231520/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 June 2011 |title=All Ashore |access-date=7 November 2008 |magazine=Time |date=7 October 1957}}</ref>

==Naval forces==
The following is a partial listing of naval forces known to have participated in Operation Strikeback.

===Aircraft carriers and embarked air groups===
* {{USS|Saratoga|CVA-60}} – Blue Fleet flagship
**[[Carrier Air Wing Seven|Carrier Air Group Seven]]
***[[VF-61|Fighter Squadron 61 (VF-61)]]
*** [[VA-72 (U.S. Navy)|Attack Squadron 72 (VA-72)]]
*** Attack Squadron 75 (VA-75)
*** All-Weather Attack Squadron 33 (VA(AW)-33) Det.
***[[VFP-62|Light Photographic Squadron 62 (VFP-62)]] Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
*{{USS|Forrestal|CVA-59}}
**[[Carrier Air Wing One|Carrier Air Group One]]
***[[VFA-14|Fighter Squadron 14 (VF-14)]]
***[[VF-84|Fighter Squadron 84 (VF-84)]]
***[[VFA-15|Attack Squadron 15 (VA-15)]]
*** Attack Squadron 76 (VA-76)
*** Heavy Attack Squadron 1 (VAH-1)
*** Airborne Early Warning Squadron 12 (VAW-12) Det.
*** All-Weather Attack Squadron 33 (AV(AW)-33) Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
*{{USS|Intrepid|CVA-11}}
**[[Carrier Air Wing Six|Carrier Air Group Six:]]
***[[VF-33|Fighter Squadron 33 (VF-33)]]
*** [[VF-71 (1942-1959)|Fighter Squadron 71 (VF-71)]]
***[[VFA-25|Attack Squadron 25 (VA-25)]]
*** Attack Squadron 66 (VA-66)
*** Heavy Attack Squadron 11 (VAH-11)
*** All-Weather Attack Squadron 33  (VA(AW)-33) Det.
***[[VFP-62|Light Photographic Squadron 62 (VFP-62)]] Det.
*** Airborne Early Warning Squadron 12 (VAW-12) Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (UH-2) Det.
*{{USS|Essex|CVA-9}}
** Squadrons embarked:
*** Air Anti-submarine Squadron 36 (VS-36)
*** Anti-submarine Helicopter Squadron 3 (HS-7)
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
*{{USS|Tarawa|CVS-40}}
** Squadrons embarked:
***[[VS-32|Air Anti-submarine Squadron 32 (VS-32)]]
*** Anti-submarine Helicopter Squadron 1 (HS-1)
*** Attack Squadron 172 (VA-172)
*** All-Weather Fighter Squadron 4 (VF(AW)-4) Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
*{{USS|Wasp|CVS-18}}
** Squadrons embarked:
***[[Attack Squadron 44 (United States Navy)|Attack Squadron 44 (VA-44)]]
*** Air Anti-submarine Squadron 27 (VS-27)
*** Air Anti-submarine Squadron 30 (VS-30)
*** Anti-submarine Helicopter Squadron 5 (HS-5)
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
* {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09}} – Orange Fleet flagship
** Squadrons embarked: [[802 Naval Air Squadron|802]], [[804 Naval Air Squadron|804]], [[815 Naval Air Squadron|815]], [[831 Naval Air Squadron|831]], [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849B]], [[898 Naval Air Squadron|898]]
*{{HMS|Bulwark|R08}}
** Squadrons embarked: [[820 Naval Air Squadron|820]], [[845 Naval Air Squadron|845]], [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849D]], [[891 Naval Air Squadron|891]]
*{{HMS|Eagle|R05}}
** Squadrons embarked: [[803 Naval Air Squadron|803]], [[806 Naval Air Squadron|806]], [[813 Naval Air Squadron|813]], [[814 Naval Air Squadron|814]], [[849 Naval Air Squadron|848A]]

===Naval aircraft===
{| width="100%"
|-
! colspan=3| 
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''United States Navy:'''
* '''Fighters:'''
**[[F-9 Cougar|Grumman F-9 Cougar]]
*** VA-76 - F9F-8B
*** VA-44 - F9F-8
*** VA-66 - F9F-8B
*** VFP-62 - F9F-8P
**[[F3H Demon|McDonnell F3H Demon]]
*** VF-14 - F3H-2N
*** [[VF-61]] - F3H-2M
**[[F2H Banshee|Douglas F2H Banshee]]
*** [[VFP-62]] - F2H-2P
*** [[VF-71 (1942-1959)|VF-71]] - F2H-3/4
*** VA-172 - F2H-2/2B
**[[FJ Fury|North American FJ-3 Fury]]
*** VF-33 - FJ-3/3M
*** VF-84- FJ-3M
* '''Anti-submarine (ASW) aircraft:'''
**[[P2V Neptune|Lockheed P2V-5F Neptune]]
*** VP-8
*** VP-10
**[[S-2 Tracker|Grumman S2F Tracker]]
*** VS-27- S2F-1/2
*** VS-30 - S2F-1/2
*** VS-32 - S2F-1/2
*** VS-36 - S2F-1/2
| width="33%" valign="top"|

* '''Attack bombers:'''
**[[Douglas A-4|Douglas A-4 Skyhawk]]
*** VA-72 - A4D-1
**[[A-1 Skyraider|Douglas AD Skyraider]]
*** VAW-12 - AD-5W
*** VA-15 - AD-6
*** VA-25 - AD-6
*** VA(AW)-33 - AD-5N, AD-5Q
*** VA-75 - AD-6
*** VF(AW)-4 – AD-5
**[[A-3 Skywarrior|Douglas A-3 Skywarrior]]
*** VAH-1 - A3D-1
**[[AJ Savage|North American AJ Savage]]
*** VAH-7 – AJ-2
*** VAH-11 – AJ-2
* '''Helicopters:'''
**[[Piasecki H-25|Piasecki HUP-2 Retriever]]
*** HU-2
**[[Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw|Sikorsky HSS-1 Seabat]]
*** HS-5
*** HS-7
|}
;Royal Navy:
*Fighter
**[[891 Naval Air Squadron]] [[de Havilland Venom|de Havilland Sea Venom]]
**[[894 Naval Air Squadron]], Sea Venom
**[[802 Naval Air Squadron]], [[Hawker Sea Hawk]]
**[[803 Naval Air Squadron]], Sea Hawk
**[[804 Naval Air Squadron]], Sea Hawk
**[[806 Naval Air Squadron]], Sea Hawk
**[[898 Naval Air Squadron]], Sea Hawk
*torpedo/strike fighter
**[[813 Naval Air Squadron]], [[Westland Wyvern]]
*A/S Warfare
**[[814 Naval Air Squadron]], [[Fairey Gannet]]
**[[815 Naval Air Squadron]], [[Fairey Gannet]]
**[[820 Naval Air Squadron]], [[Fairey Gannet]]
*Airborne Early Warning
**'A' Flight [[849 Naval Air Squadron]], [[List of A-1 Skyraider operators#Royal Navy|Skyraider AEW.1]]
**'B' Flight 849 Naval Air Squadron, Skyraider AEW.1
**'D' Flight 849 Naval Air Squadron, Skyraider AEW.1
*Helicopters:
**[[845 Naval Air Squadron]], [[Westland Whirlwind (helicopter)|Westland Whirlwind:]]

====Aircraft losses====
[[File:A3D crash on USS Forrestal (CVA-59) 1957.jpg|right|200px|''Forrestal''crash]]
* 24 September 1957 – An [[F4D Skyray]] jet fighter crashed into the sea while attempting to land back on board the {{USS|Saratoga|CV-60|6}}.  During the subsequent [[search and rescue]], two [[S-2 Tracker|S2F-2]] ASW aircraft of VS-36 off the {{USS|Essex|CV-9|6}} collided in mid-air and crashed into the sea.  Two additional F4D Skyray aircraft crashed following a mid-air collision off [[Andøya]], [[Norway]]. The total loss of life was 11.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/Aircraft_by_Type/Skyray/douglas_skyray.htm |title=Loss and Ejections: F4D-1 Skyray |access-date=3 October 2008 |publisher=ejection-history.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528064512/http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/Aircraft_by_Type/Skyray/douglas_skyray.htm |archive-date=28 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Sea |title=Sea Stories |access-date=3 October 2008 |publisher=USS Essex Association}}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aircrew2.htm |title=United States Navy Crew Crashes While On NATO Maneuvers In The Atlantic 24 September 1957 |access-date=3 September 2008 |publisher=[[Arlington National Cemetery]]}}</ref>
*26 September 1957 – An [[A-3 Skywarrior|A3D-1 Skywarrior]] attack bomber crashed into the stern [[flight deck]] ramp while attempting to land on board the {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|6}} (''pictured'').  The aircraft was lost at sea, but the three-man crew was recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRep_Crews/A-3%20AccidentsPage2.html |title=A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2 |access-date=3 October 2008 |publisher=A-3 Skywarrior Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517173549/http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRep_Crews/A-3%20AccidentsPage2.html |archive-date=17 May 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRepwithBuNo_full/HTML%20List%20of%20Accidents%20by%20BuNoPage2.html |access-date=3 September 2008 |title=HTML List of Accidents by BuNo Report |publisher=A-3 Skywarrior Association |date=10 November 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619052132/http://a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRepwithBuNo_full/HTML%20List%20of%20Accidents%20by%20BuNoPage2.html |archive-date=19 June 2006}}</ref>

===Surface warships===
{| width="100%"
|-
! colspan=3| 
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Battleships:'''
*{{USS|Wisconsin|BB-64}}
*{{USS|Iowa|BB-61}}
'''Cruisers:'''
*{{USS|Canberra|CAG-2}}
*{{USS|Boston|CAG-1}}
*{{USS|Macon|CA-132}}
*{{USS|Albany|CA-123}}
*{{USS|Northampton|CLC-1}}
*{{HMS|Gambia|48}}
*{{HMS|Sheffield|24}}
*{{Ship|French cruiser|De Grasse|C610|3}}
'''Destroyers:'''
*{{USS|Mitscher|DL-2}}
*{{USS|Willis A. Lee|DL-4}}
*{{USS|Decatur|DD-936}}
*{{USS|John Paul Jones|DD-932}}
*{{USS|Forrest Sherman|DD-931}}
*{{USS|O'Hare|DDR-889}}
*{{USS|Forrest Royal|DD-872}}
*{{USS|Charles R. Ware|DD-865}}
*{{USS|Harwood|DD-861}}
*{{USS|McCaffery|DDE-860}}
*{{USS|Charles H. Roan|DD-853}}
*{{USS|Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.|DD-850}}
*{{USS|Fiske|DDR-842}}
*{{USS|Robert A. Owens|DDE-827}}
*{{USS|Samuel B. Roberts|DD-823}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|

*{{USS|Johnston|DD-821}}
*{{USS|Corry|DD-817}}
*{{USS|Robert K. Huntington|DD-781}}
*{{USS|Stormes|DD-780}}
*{{USS|Douglas H. Fox|DD-779}}
*{{USS|Massey|DD-778}}
*{{USS|Zellars|DD-777}}
*{{USS|James C. Owens|DD-776}}
*{{USS|Lowry|DD-770}}
*{{USS|Putnam|DD-757}}
*{{USS|Laffey|DD-724}}
*{{USS|William R. Rush|DDR-714}}
*{{USS|Hugh Purvis|DD-709}}
*{{USS|Harlan R. Dickson|DD-708}}
*{{USS|Gainard|DD-706}}
*{{USS|Compton|DD-705}}
*{{USS|Ault|DD-698}}
*{{USS|Charles S. Sperry|DD-697}}
*{{USS|Ingraham|DD-694}}
*{{USS|Moale|DD-693}}
*{{USS|Allen M. Sumner|DD-692}}
*{{USS|Hunt|DD-674}}
*{{USS|Caperton|DD-650}}
*{{USS|Abbot|DD-629}}
*{{USS|The Sullivans|DD-537}}
*{{USS|Daly|DD-519}}
*{{USS|Eaton|DDE-510}}
*{{USS|Cony|DDE-508}}
*[[USS Beale (DD-471)|USS ''Beale'' (DDE-471)]]
| width="33%" valign="top"| 
'''Destroyer escorts:'''
*{{USS|Joseph K. Taussig|DE-1030}}
*{{USS|Courtney|DE-1021}}
*{{USS|Hammerberg|DE-1015}}
*{{USS|Cromwell|DE-1014}}
*{{USS|Dealey|DE-1006}}
*{{USS|Snowden|DE-246}}
*{{USS|Peterson|DE-152}}
*{{USS|Huse|DE-145}}
'''Amphibious vessels:'''
*{{USS|Mount McKinley|AGC-7}}
*{{USS|Washtenaw County|LST-1166}}
'''Royal Canadian Navy destroyers'''
*{{HMCS|Iroquois|DDE 217}}
*{{HMCS|St. Laurent|DDE 205}}
*{{HMCS|Ottawa|DDE 229}}
*{{HMCS|Saguenay|DDE 206}}
*{{HMCS|Assiniboine|DDE 234}}
*{{HMCS|Haida|DDE 215}}
*{{HMCS|Micmac|DDE 214}}
*{{HMCS|Nootka|DDE 213}}
|}

===Submarine forces===
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=3| 
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"| 
'''Nuclear submarines:'''
*{{USS|Seawolf|SSN-575}}
*{{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571}}

'''Support vessels:'''
*{{USS|Fulton|AS-11}}
*{{USS|Papago|ATF-160}}
*{{USS|Luiseno|ATF-156}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|  
'''Diesel-electric submarines:'''
*{{USS|Darter|SS-576}}
*{{USS|Trigger|SS-564}}
*{{USS|Odax|SS-484}}
*{{USS|Runner|SS-476}}
*{{USS|Trumpetfish|SS-425}}
*{{USS|Quillback|SS-424}}
*{{USS|Torsk|SS-423}}
*{{USS|Piper|SS-409}}
*{{USS|Sea Poacher|SS-406}}
*{{USS|Sea Owl|SS-405}}
*{{USS|Jallao|SS-368}}
*{{USS|Halfbeak|SS-352}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|

*{{USS|Chopper|SS-342}}
*{{USS|Bergall|SS-320}}
*{{USS|Becuna|SS-319}}
*{{USS|Barbero|SSG-317}}
*{{USS|Redfin|SSR-272}}
*{{USS|Ray|SSR-271}}
*{{USS|Pompon|SSR-267}}
*{{USS|Croaker|SSK-246}}
*{{USS|Cavalla|SSK-244}}
*{{USS|Angler|SSK-240}}
*{{USS|Grouper|SSK-214}}
|}

===Naval auxiliaries===
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=3| 
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Underway Replenishment Group (URG):'''
*{{USS|Suribachi|AE-21}} (flagship)
*{{USS|Shasta|AE-6}}
*{{USS|Denebola|AF-56}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|

*{{USS|Caloosahatchee|AO-98}}
*{{USS|Allagash|AO-97}}
*{{USS|Nantahala|AO-60}}
*{{USS|Kankakee|AO-39}}
*{{USS|Kennebec|AO-36}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|  
'''Fleet Support: '''
*{{USS|Grand Canyon|AD-28}}
*{{USS|Cadmus|AR-14}}
|}

===Land-based ASW patrol aircraft===
====U.S. Navy Fleet Air Wing 3====
The United States Navy deployed two patrol squadron from [[Fleet Air Wing Three]] (FAW-3) to participate in Operation Strikeback:

*[[VP-8|Patrol Squadron 8 (VP-8)]] operated out of [[Naval Station Argentia|Argentia]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-vol2/chap3-2.pdf |format=PDF |title=Second VP-8 |access-date=3 September 2008 |work=Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2, Chapter 3 |publisher=Naval Historical Center}}</ref>
*[[VP-10|Patrol Squadron 10 (VP-10)]] operated out of [[Naval Air Station Keflavik|Keflavik]], [[Iceland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-vol2/chap3-3.pdf |format=PDF |title=Third VP-10 |access-date=3 September 2008 |work=Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2, Chapter 3 |publisher=Naval Historical Center |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070327075802/http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-vol2/chap3-3.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2007 }}</ref>

Both squadrons flew [[P2V Neptune|Lockheed P2V-5F]] Neptune ASW patrol aircraft.

====RAF Coastal Command====
The [[Royal Air Force]] assigned two squadrons from [[RAF Coastal Command]] to participate in Operation Strikeback. Both squadrons flew [[Avro Shackleton]] patrol bombers:

*[[No. 204 Squadron RAF|No. 204 Squadron]] deployed to [[RAF Kinloss]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.bigpond.net.au/Shackleton/balkela.html |title=Ballykelly's Shackleton Era 1952-1971 |access-date=3 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705064701/http://users.bigpond.net.au/Shackleton/balkela.html |archive-date=5 July 2008 }}</ref>
*[[No. 269 Squadron RAF|No. 269 Squadron]] deployed to [[Wick Airport|RAF Wick]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oca.269squadron.btinternet.co.uk/history/squadron_history/chronology/1952-1963.htm |title=History - No. 269 Squadron RAF |access-date=3 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421215817/http://www.oca.269squadron.btinternet.co.uk/history/squadron_history/chronology/1952-1963.htm |archive-date=21 April 2008}}</ref>

===U.S. Marine Corps units===
The following units of the [[United States Marine Corps]] participated in Operation Strikeback in September 1957 are listed below.<ref>{{cite book |last=Donnelly |first=Ralph W. |author2=Gabrielle M. Nuefield |author3=Carolyn A. Tyson |year=1971 |title=A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947–1964 Volume III |publisher=[[United States Marine Corps]] |location=Washington, DC |id=PCN 19000318200 |lccn=77-604776 |pages=35}}</ref>
*[[8th Marine Regiment (United States)|Regimental Landing Team 8]] (RLT-8)
*[[1st Battalion 2nd Marines|Battalion Landing Team 1/2]]

==See also==
{{Commons category|Operation Strikeback}}

*[[Cold War (1953–1962)]]
*[[Operation Deep Water]]
*[[Operation Brasstacks]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
*{{cite book |last=Sturtivant |first=Ray |author2=Theo Ballance |title=''The Squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm'' |publisher=Air Britain |year=1994 |isbn=0-85130-223-8}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000819035053/http://history.navy.mil/danfs/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2000 |title=''Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships'' |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=Naval Historical Center }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol1.htm |title=''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 1'' |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=Naval Historical Center |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915085909/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol1.htm |archive-date=15 September 2008 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol2.htm |title=''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2'' |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=Naval Historical Center |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915133000/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol2.htm |archive-date=15 September 2008 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/ |title=DANFS Online |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=www.hazegray.org}}
*{{cite web |url=http://intrepid-west.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=1 |title=The Intrepid from Day One |access-date=26 August 2008 |last=Robeson |first=Paul |date=8 November 2004 |publisher=intrepid-west.org }}{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Essex_History.htm |title=USS ''Essex'' Association |access-date=26 August 2008 |year=1997–2008 |publisher=USS Essex Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114042045/http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Essex_History.htm |archive-date=14 January 2015 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.chinfo.navy.mil <!--What part of this site?--> |title=U.S. Navy Office of Information |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=United States Navy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913104845/http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/ |archive-date=13 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.destroyers.org |title=The National Association of Destroyer Veterans |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=Tin Can Sailors}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy |title=U.S. Navy |access-date=26 August 2008 |last=Pike |first=John |date=2000–2008 |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ussohare.com |title=USS O'Hare (DD-889) |access-date=26 August 2008 |year=2008 |publisher=USS O'Hare, DD/DDR 889 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814012036/http://www.ussohare.com/ |archive-date=14 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.harwood861.org |title=USS ''Harwood'' (DD-861) |access-date=26 August 2008 |year=1997 |publisher=Bushnell & Associates}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.usscharleshroan.org |title=USS ''Charles H. Roan'' (DD-853) |access-date=26 August 2008 |year=1999–2008 |publisher=USS Charles H. Roan (DD-861) Association}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.usscharlesrwaredd865.com/dd865history.htm |title=USS ''Charles R. Ware'' (DD-865) |access-date=26 August 2008 |last=Dannenfeldt |first=Danny |year=2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717180344/http://www.usscharlesrwaredd865.com/dd865history.htm |archive-date=17 July 2011 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ussfiske.org |title=USS ''Fiske'' (DDR-842) |access-date=26 August 2008 |year=2008 |publisher=USS Fiske DD/DDR 842 Association, Inc.}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.samuelbroberts.org |title=USS Samuel B. Roberts (DD-823) |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=Samuel B Roberts (DD-823) Shipmates Association}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.multied.com/NAVY/destroyer/JohnstonIIdd821.html |title=USS Johnston (DD-821) |access-date=26 August 2008 |year=2005 |publisher=Multieducator}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.uss-corry-dd817.org/History/history.php |title=Military History of the USS Corry |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=USS Corry DD/DDR 817 Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703062454/http://www.uss-corry-dd817.org/History/history.php |archive-date=3 July 2008 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.destroyersonline.com/usndd/dd697/dd697ltr.htm|title=USS ''Charles S. Sperry'' DD 697|access-date=26 August 2008|publisher=Destroyers OnLine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816141252/http://www.destroyersonline.com/usndd/dd697/dd697ltr.htm|archive-date=16 August 2007|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.dd-692.com/mediterrc.htm |title=Northern Europe - September to October 1957 |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=U.S.S. Allen M. Sumner (DD-692) Official Home of the First in its Class }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.uss-trumpetfish-ss425.org/4.html |title=History - USS ''Trumpetfish'' (SS-425) |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=USS Trumpetfish SS 425 Veterans Association Inc. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709000617/http://www.uss-trumpetfish-ss425.org/4.html|archive-date=9 July 2007|url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08319.htm|title=USS ''Becuna'' (SS-319)|access-date=26 August 2008|publisher=Navsource.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031204084345/http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08319.htm|archive-date=4 December 2003|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.pownetwork.org/phonies/phonies312.htm |title=USS ''Cadmus'' |access-date=26 August 2008 |author=Albert Nelson Cain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024191351/http://www.pownetwork.org/phonies/phonies312.htm|archive-date=24 October 2007|url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49|title=A Brief History of HMCS ''Iroquois'' (Postwar)|access-date=26 August 2008|publisher=Canadian Navy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040517133522/http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49|archive-date=17 May 2004|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html |title=The day Nautilus came to Portland |access-date=26 August 2008 |newspaper=Dorset Echo }}{{dead link|date=June 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.gonavy.jp |title=Go Navy |access-date=26 August 2008 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.wa3key.com/cvsdata.html#airgroup |title=USS ''Intrepid'' Service Data |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=wa3key }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.vpnavy.com/shipmates_de.html |title=VP Shipmate Directory |access-date=26 August 2008 |author=Ronald G. Dejarnette |publisher=VPNavy.org }}
*{{cite web |url=http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/ |title=Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards |access-date=26 August 2008 |publisher=NavWeaps }}

<!-- What makes this a reliable source? *{{cite web |url=http://navysite.de/ |title= |accessdate=26 August 2008 |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |quote=}} -->

==Bibliography==
{{DANFS}}

*{{cite journal|last=Dulles |first=John Foster |author-link=John Foster Dulles |date=12 January 1954 |title=The Evolution of Foreign Policy. |journal=Department of State, Press Release |issue=81 |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/article-dulles-retaliation_1962-01-25.htm |access-date=28 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418035658/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/article-dulles-retaliation_1962-01-25.htm |archive-date=18 April 2008 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Clearwater |first=John |title=Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story of Canada's Cold War Arsenal |publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd. |year=1998 |isbn=1-55002-299-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Donnelly |first=Ralph W. |author2=Gabrielle M. Nuefield |author3=Carolyn A. Tyson |title=A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947–1964 Volume III |url=http://www.usmc.mil/news/publications/Documents/A%20Chronology%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Marine%20Corps%201947-1964%20%20PCN%2019000318200.pdf |publisher=USMC Headquarters - Historical Division |year=1971 |isbn=978-1481987516}}
*{{cite book |last=Friedman |first=Norman |title=''U.S. Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History'' |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |date=September 1994 |isbn=1-55750-260-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Jones |first=William K. |title=''A Brief History of the 6th Marines'' |publisher=USMC Headquarters - Historical Division |year=1987 |isbn=1-900031-00-0<!-- (PCN)-->}}
*{{cite book |last=Key Jr. |first=David M. |title=''Admiral Jerauld Wright:  Warrior among Diplomats'' |publisher=Sunflower University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-89745-251-8}}
*Lord Ismay, [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years ''NATO the first five years 1949-1954''], North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, 1954
*{{cite book |last=Sturtivant |first=Ray |author2=Theo Ballance |title=''The Squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm'', first edition |publisher=Air Britain |year=1994 |isbn=0-85130-223-8}}
*{{cite web |url=https://drum.umd.edu/dspace/bitstream/1903/3390/1/umi-umd-3202.pdf |format=PDF |title=Creating Deterrence for Limited War: The U.S. Army and the Defense of West Germany, 1953-1982; PhD dissertation |access-date=28 August 2008 |last=Trauschweizer |first=Igor Wolfgang |year=2006 |publisher=Department of History - [[University of Maryland, College Park]] }}{{dead link|date=May 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
*{{cite book |last=USS ''Wasp'' Veterans Association |title=U. S. S. Wasp CV 18 |publisher=Turner Publishing Company |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-56311-404-5}}
*{{cite journal |last=Benedict |first=John R. |date=Spring 2005 |title=The Unraveling and Revitalization of U.S. Navy Antisubmarine Warfare |journal=Naval War College Review |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=92–120 |url=http://www.jhuapl.edu/areas/warfare/papers/art4-sp05.pdf |format=PDF |access-date=28 August 2008 }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} 
*{{cite journal |last=Porter |first=Richard E. |date=March–April 1977 |title=Correlation of Forces: Revolutionary Legacy |journal=[[Air University (United States)|Air University Review]] |url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1977/mar-apr/porter.html |access-date=28 August 2008 |archive-date=27 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427030314/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1977/mar-apr/porter.html |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=Trainor |first=Bernard E. |author-link=Bernard E. Trainor |date=February 2008 |title=Triumph in Strategic Thinking |journal=United States Naval Institute Proceedings |volume=134 |issue=2 |id=40 – 42 |url=http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/archive/story.asp?STORY_ID=1352 |access-date=29 August 2008 }}
*{{cite journal|date=5 October 2007|title=The day ''Nautilus'' came to Portland|journal=[[Dorset Echo]]|url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html|access-date=3 November 2008}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite news |last=Baldwin |first=Hanson W. |author-link=Hanson W. Baldwin |date=22 September 1957 |title=100 Fighting Ships in Vast Exercise |work=[[The New York Times]] |page=9 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1957/09/22/archives/100-fighting-ships-in-vast-exercise-strongest-part-of-nato-force-in.html |access-date=28 August 2008}}
*{{cite news |last=Trainor |first=Bernard E. |author-link=Bernard E. Trainor |date=23 March 1987 |title=Lehman's Sea-War Strategy Is Alive, but for How Long? |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/03/23/us/washington-talk-pentagon-lehman-s-sea-war-strategy-is-alive-but-for-how-long.html |access-date=3 November 2008}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110628231338/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html "Emergency Call"] ''Time''  —  30 September 1957
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110628231520/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html "All Ashore"] ''Time'' — 7 October 1957
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024204907/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863224,00.html?iid=chix-sphere  "Antisubmarine Boss"] ''Time'' — 7 April 1958
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080906183515/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863701,00.html "The Goblin Killers"] ''Time'' — 1 September 1958
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060517173549/http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRep_Crews/A-3%20AccidentsPage2.html A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2] A-3 Skywarrior Association
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060619052132/http://a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRepwithBuNo_full/HTML%20List%20of%20Accidents%20by%20BuNoPage2.html Descriptive List of Accidents, p. 2] A-3 Skywarrior Association
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705064701/http://users.bigpond.net.au/Shackleton/balkela.html Ballykelly's Shackleton Era 1952-1971]
* [http://www.radioman.org/history.pdf ''Chronological History — U.S. Naval Communications'']
* [http://www.destroyers.org The National Association of Destroyer Veterans]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150528064512/http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/Aircraft_by_Type/Skyray/douglas_skyray.htm Loss and Ejections: F4D-1 Skyray] - [http://www.ejection-history.org.uk Project Get Out and Walk]
* [http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49 HMCS ''Iroquois''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040517133522/http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49 |date=17 May 2004 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150322175446/http://fleetairarmarchive.net/Ships/Bulwark.html HMS ''Bulwark'' - Fleet Air Arm Archives]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy GlobalSecurity.org]
* [http://gonavy.jp/ Go Navy]
* [http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aircrew2.htm United States Navy Crew Crashes While On NATO Maneuvers In The Atlantic 24 September 1957] - [[Arlington National Cemetery]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080915085909/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol1.htm ''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 1 The History of VA, VAH, VAK, VAL, VAP and VFA Squadrons'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080915133000/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol2.htm ''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2 The History of VP, VPB, VP(H) and VP(AM) Squadrons'']
* [http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/11.htm#strike_back USS ''Intrepid'' — Operation Strikeback] — Navsource.org
* [http://www.nato.int/cv/ace-k-p.pdf Senior officials in the NATO military structure, from 1949 to 2001]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070814061819/http://www.oca.269squadron.btinternet.co.uk/history/squadron_history/chronology/1952-1963.htm History, 1952 - 1963] - No. 269 Squadron RAF
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080926135400/http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Sea_Stories.htm Sea Story] - USS ''Essex''  Association
<!-- Forums are not considered reliable sources - left content for perusal by editors for sources quoted in discussion
* [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6897 The Commonwealth Navies:  NATO Operation Strikeback - 1957] Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards
* [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/5748 The European Navies: Norwegian subs during the Cold War] Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards
* [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6896 The European Navies: NATO Operation Strikeback - 1957] Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards
* [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6895 The Royal Navy:  NATO Operation Strikeback] Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards
* [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6894 The United States Navy:  NATO Operation Strikeback - 1957] Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards

-->

==External links==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy GlobalSecurity.org]
* [http://gonavy.jp/ Go Navy]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/nan/backissues/1950s/1957/dec57.pdf "Trained to 'Strike Back'"] - ''Naval Aviation News'' - December 1957

{{NATO}}
{{Cold War}}

[[Category:NATO military exercises|Strikeback]]
[[Category:1957 in military history]]
[[Category:1957 in Europe]]