View source for Government by algorithm

{{short description|Alternative form of government or social ordering}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Regulation of algorithms]], [[e-government]] or [[Cyberocracy]]}}
{{Government by algorithm}}
{{Governance|Models}}

'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name="Engin">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.<ref name="karen">{{cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |title=Algorithmic regulation: A critical interrogation |journal=Regulation & Governance |date=December 2018 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=505–523 |doi=10.1111/rego.12158|s2cid=157086008 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzenbach |first1=Christian |last2=Ulbricht |first2=Lena |title=Algorithmic governance |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=29 November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14763/2019.4.1424 |hdl=10419/210652 |url=https://policyreview.info/concepts/algorithmic-governance |access-date=19 March 2020 |issn=2197-6775|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abril |first1=Rubén Rodríguez |title=DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection |website=www.derecom.com |url=http://www.derecom.com/secciones/articulos-de-fondo/item/398-an-approach-to-the-algorithmic-legal-order-and-to-its-civil-trade-and-financial-projection |access-date=20 May 2020 |language=es-es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy |url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/danaher20140107 |access-date=20 May 2020 |work=ieet.org}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain>{{citation |last1=Werbach |first1=Kevin |title=The Siren Song: Algorithmic Governance By Blockchain |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3578610}}.</ref> The term "government by algorithm" has appeared in academic literature as an alternative for "algorithmic governance" in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Ben |title=Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance |journal=British Educational Research Association Conference |date=January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |access-date=26 December 2020 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201356/https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms{{snd}}automation of [[judiciary]] is in its scope.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=Mireille |title=Algorithmic regulation and the rule of law |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=6 August 2018 |volume=376 |issue=2128 |pages=20170355 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2017.0355|pmid=30082301 |bibcode=2018RSPTA.37670355H |doi-access=free|hdl=2066/200765 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the context of blockchain, it is also known as '''blockchain governance'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumineau |first1=Fabrice |last2=Wang |first2=Wenqian |last3=Schilke |first3=Oliver |title=Blockchain Governance—A New Way of Organizing Collaborations? |journal=Organization Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=500–521 |doi=10.1287/orsc.2020.1379 |s2cid=225123270 |issn=1047-7039|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:CyberSyn-render-103.png|thumb|Computer-generated image of [[Project Cybersyn]] operations room]]
[[File:Legol Group 1977 (3832930465).jpg|thumb|LEGOL Group (1977)]]
[[File:-rpTEN - Tag 3 (26745091551).jpg|thumb|''"Blockchain and the future of governance. Let's overcome the hype and understand what can be done."'' with Andrea Bauer, Boris Moshkovits und Shermin Voshmgir at [[re:publica]]]]

In 1962, the director of the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in Moscow (later Kharkevich Institute),<ref>{{cite web |title=Organisations: Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute): Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute), Moscow, Russia |url=http://www.mathnet.ru/php/organisation.phtml?orgid=5026&option_lang=eng |website=www.mathnet.ru |access-date=24 March 2021}}</ref> [[Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich|Alexander Kharkevich]], published an article in the journal "Communist" about a computer network for processing information and control of the economy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Machine of communism. Why the USSR did not create the Internet |url=http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/mashiny-kommunizma-pochemu-v-sssr-tak-i-ne-sozdali-svoj-internet-6983 |website=csef.ru |access-date=21 March 2020 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kharkevich |first1=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|title=Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3|date=1973|publisher=Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems|location=Information and technology|pages=495–508}}</ref> In fact, he proposed to make a network like the modern Internet for the needs of algorithmic governance (Project [[OGAS]]). This created a serious concern among CIA analysts.<ref name=cyberthreat>{{cite news |last1=Gerovitch |first1=Slava |title=How the Computer Got Its Revenge on the Soviet Union |url=https://nautil.us/issue/23/dominoes/how-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union |access-date=19 September 2021 |work=Nautilus |date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922175839/https://nautil.us/issue/23/Dominoes/how-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular, [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] warned that ''"by 1970 the USSR may have a radically new production technology, involving total enterprises or complexes of industries, managed by closed-loop, feedback control employing [[self-teaching computer]]s"''.<ref name=cyberthreat/>

Between 1971 and 1973, the [[Chile]]an government carried out [[Project Cybersyn]] during the [[presidency of Salvador Allende]]. This project was aimed at constructing a distributed [[decision support system]] to improve the management of the national economy.<ref>{{ cite web| url=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| title=IU professor analyzes Chile's 'Project Cybersyn'| publisher=UI News Room| access-date=27 May 2013| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910060602/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| archive-date=10 September 2009}}</ref><ref name=medina/> Elements of the project were used in 1972 to successfully overcome the traffic collapse caused by a [[Presidency of Salvador Allende#Crisis|CIA-sponsored strike of forty thousand truck drivers]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation |journal=Kybernetes |date=1 January 2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052}}</ref>

Also in the 1960s and 1970s, [[Herbert A. Simon]] championed [[expert systems]] as tools for rationalization and evaluation of administrative behavior.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freeman Engstrom |first1=David |last2=Ho |first2=Daniel E. |last3=Sharkey |first3=Catherine M. |last4=Cuéllar |first4=Mariano-Florentino |title=Government by Algorithm: Artificial Intelligence in Federal Administrative Agencies |url=https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2020 |access-date=2020-03-26 |archive-date=2022-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The automation of rule-based processes was an ambition of tax agencies over many decades resulting in varying success.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Helen |last1=Margretts |author-link1=Helen Margetts |title=Information technology in government : Britain and America |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=9780203208038}}</ref> Early work from this period includes Thorne McCarty's influential TAXMAN project<ref name ="mccarty">McCarty, L. Thorne. ''Reflections on" Taxman: An Experiment in Artificial Intelligence and Legal Reasoning.'' Harvard Law Review (1977): 837–893.</ref> in the US and Ronald Stamper's [[LEGOL]] project<ref name="stamper77">Stamper, Ronald K. ''The LEGOL 1 prototype system and language.'' The Computer Journal 20.2 (1977): 102-108.</ref> in the UK. In 1993, the computer scientist [[Paul Cockshott]] from the [[University of Glasgow]] and the economist Allin Cottrell from the [[Wake Forest University]] published the book ''[[Towards a New Socialism]]'', where they claim to demonstrate the possibility of a democratically [[planned economy]] built on modern computer technology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cockshott |first1=W. Paul |title=Towards a new socialism |date=1993 |publisher=Spokesman |location=Nottingham, England |isbn=978-0851245454}}</ref> The Honourable Justice [[Michael Kirby (judge)|Michael Kirby]] published a paper in 1998, where he expressed optimism that the then-available computer technologies such as [[legal expert system]] could evolve to computer systems, which will strongly affect the practice of courts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Michael |title=The Future of Courts - Do They Have One |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/jlinfos9&div=19&id=&page= |journal=Journal of Law and Information Science |access-date=12 April 2020 |pages=141 |date=1998|volume=9 }}</ref> In 2006, attorney [[Lawrence Lessig]], known for the slogan [[Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace|"Code is law"]], wrote:

<blockquote>[T]he invisible hand of cyberspace is building an architecture that is quite the opposite of its architecture at its birth. This invisible hand, pushed by government and by commerce, is constructing an architecture that will perfect control and make highly efficient regulation possible<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Lessig |author-link1=Lawrence Lessig |title=Code |date=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |edition=Version 2.0}}</ref></blockquote>

Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to [[Closed-circuit television#Computer-controlled analytics and identification|automatically analyze surveillance videos]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sodemann |first1=Angela A. |last2=Ross |first2=Matthew P. |last3=Borghetti |first3=Brett J. |title=A Review of Anomaly Detection in Automated Surveillance |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part C: Applications and Reviews|date=November 2012 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1257–1272 |doi=10.1109/TSMCC.2012.2215319|s2cid=15466712}}</ref>

In his 2006's book ''Virtual Migration'', [[A. Aneesh]] developed the concept of algocracy — information technologies constrain human participation in public decision making.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelty |first1=Christopher |title=Explaining IT |journal=Political and Legal Anthropology Review |date=2009 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=156–160 |doi=10.1111/j.1555-2934.2009.01035.x |jstor=24497537 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24497537 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=1081-6976}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DANTTO-13 }}</ref> Aneesh differentiated algocratic systems from bureaucratic systems (legal-rational regulation) as well as market-based systems (price-based regulation).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aneesh |first1=A. |title=Virtual Migration: the Programming of Globalization. |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3669-3 |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/Virtual-Migration/}}</ref>

In 2013, algorithmic regulation was coined by [[Tim O'Reilly]], founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media Inc.:

<blockquote>Sometimes the "rules" aren't really even rules. Gordon Bruce, the former CIO of the city of Honolulu, explained to me that when he entered government from the private sector and tried to make changes, he was told, "That's against the law." His reply was "OK. Show me the law." "Well, it isn't really a law. It's a regulation." "OK. Show me the regulation." "Well, it isn't really a regulation. It's a policy that was put in place by Mr. Somebody twenty years ago." "Great. We can change that!" [...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.<ref name=timoreilly>{{cite book |last1=O’Reilly |first1=Tim |author-link1=Tim O'Reilly |editor1-last=Goldstein |editor1-first=B. |editor2-last=Dyson |editor2-first=L. |title=Beyond Transparency: open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation |date=2013 |publisher=Code for America Press |location=San Francisco |pages=289–300 |chapter=Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation}}</ref></blockquote>

In 2017, Ukraine's [[Ministry of Justice (Ukraine)|Ministry of Justice]] ran experimental [[government auction]]s using [[blockchain]] technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions.<ref name=ukrainereuteers/> "Government by Algorithm?" was the central theme introduced at Data for Policy 2017 conference held on 6–7 September 2017 in London.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data for Policy 2017 |url=https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ |website=Data for Policy CIC |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref>

==Examples==
===Smart cities===
[[File:Architecture-of-the-IoT-for-home-care-systems.jpg|thumb|Architecture of the [[IoT]] for home care systems]]

A [[smart city]] is an urban area where collected surveillance data is used to improve various operations. Increase in computational power allows more automated decision making and replacement of public agencies by algorithmic governance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brauneis |first1=Robert |last2=Goodman |first2=Ellen P. |title=Algorithmic Transparency for the Smart City |journal=Yale Journal of Law & Technology |date=1 January 2018 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=103 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-544510684/algorithmic-transparency-for-the-smart-city |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021439/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular, the combined use of artificial intelligence and blockchains for [[Internet of things|IoT]] may lead to the creation of [[sustainable]] smart city ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Saurabh |last2=Sharma |first2=Pradip Kumar |last3=Yoon |first3=Byungun |last4=Shojafar |first4=Mohammad |last5=Cho |first5=Gi Hwan |last6=Ra |first6=In-Ho |title=Convergence of blockchain and artificial intelligence in IoT network for the sustainable smart city |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |date=1 December 2020 |volume=63 |pages=102364 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2020.102364 |s2cid=225022879 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670720305850 |access-date=24 March 2021 |issn=2210-6707}}</ref> [[Intelligent street lighting]] in [[Glasgow]] is an example of successful government application of AI algorithms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gardner |first1=Allison |title=Don't write off government algorithms – responsible AI can produce real benefits |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/dont-write-off-government-algorithms-responsible-ai-can-produce-real-benefits-145895 |access-date=1 April 2021}}</ref> A study of smart city initiatives in the US shows that it requires public sector as a main organizer and coordinator, the private sector as a technology and infrastructure provider, and universities as expertise contributors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morrow |first1=Garrett |title=The Robot in City Hall: The Limitations, Structure, and Governance of Smart City Technology Regimes|date=2022 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/6785af5e14f63d5e91d47b76337e4aec/1.pdf |via=ProQuest |language=en}}</ref>

The [[cryptocurrency]] millionaire Jeffrey Berns proposed the operation of [[local governments]] in [[Nevada]] by tech firms in 2021.<ref name=nevada>{{cite news |title=Nevada smart city: A millionaire's plan to create a local government |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56409924 |access-date=24 March 2021 |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2021}}</ref> Berns bought 67,000 acres (271&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) in Nevada's rural [[Storey County]] (population 4,104) for $170,000,000 (£121,000,000) in 2018 in order to develop a smart city with more than 36,000 residents that could generate an annual output of $4,600,000,000.<ref name=nevada/> Cryptocurrency will be allowed for payments.<ref name=nevada/> Blockchains, Inc. "Innovation Zone" was canceled in September 2021 after it failed to secure enough water<ref>{{Cite web |last=Independent |first=Daniel Rothberg {{!}} The Nevada |title=Blockchains, Inc. withdraws 'Innovation Zone' plan for Storey County |url=http://www.nnbw.com/news/2021/oct/12/blockchains-inc-withdraws-innovation-zone-plan-sto/ |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.nnbw.com}}</ref> for the planned 36,000 residents, through water imports from a site located 100 miles away in the neighboring [[Washoe County, Nevada|Washoe County]].<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com">{{Cite web |title=Months before a company lobbied the Legislature to create its own county, it purchased faraway water rights that could fuel future growth |url=https://thenevadaindependent.com/article/months-before-a-company-lobbied-the-legislature-to-create-its-own-county-it-purchased-faraway-water-rights-that-could-fuel-future-growth |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=The Nevada Independent |date=12 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Similar water pipeline proposed in 2007 was estimated to cost $100 million and to would have taken about 10 years to develop.<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com"/> With additional water rights purchased from Tahoe Reno Industrial General Improvement District, "Innovation Zone" would have acquired enough water for about 15,400 homes - meaning that it would have barely covered its planned 15,000 dwelling units, leaving nothing for the rest of the projected city and its 22 million square-feet of industrial development.<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com"/>

In [[Saudi Arabia]], the planners of [[The Line, Saudi Arabia|The Line]] assert that it will be monitored by AI to improve life by using data and predictive modeling.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia is planning a 100-mile line of car-free smart communities |url=https://www.engadget.com/the-line-neom-smart-city-saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-salman-113539487.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMcI4yDl2upDPXrWiYcCTvvnvLTYKdun8IrX9Z5qdG4mnuWTzhJXw6ImGxBrHyoFm8THyrYuJAnCXujn6nMP5RtPji43N5A0iz5T2qguDg1q8342WV8_PitetSew8vJ9bA-5qKIjexmcriDG6I84NBwoIgZbzR_BlQhWICkM5Jk3 |access-date=18 May 2022 |work=Engadget}}</ref>

===Reputation systems===
{{See also|Credit score}}
[[File:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg|thumb|Model of cybernetic thinking about organisation. On the one hand in reality a system is determined. On the other hand, cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Cybernetic and Management |date=1959 |publisher=English Universities Press |chapter=XVI}}</ref>]]

Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and [[reputation system]]s combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations.<ref name=timoreilly/> For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and "drivers who provide poor service are eliminated".<ref name=timoreilly/> O'Reilly's suggestion is based on [[control theory|control-theoreric]] concept of [[feedback|feed-back loop]]—[[positive feedback|improvements]] and [[negative feedback|disimprovements]] of reputation enforce desired behavior.<ref name=socialmachine/> The usage of feed-loops for the management of social systems is already been suggested in [[management cybernetics]] by [[Stafford Beer]] before.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beer |first1=Stafford |author-link1=Stafford Beer |title=Platform for change : a message from Stafford Beer. |date=1975 |publisher=J. Wiley |isbn=978-0471948407}}</ref>

These connections are explored by [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a [[social machine]], so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.<ref name=socialmachine/>

China's [[Social Credit System]] was said to be a mass surveillance effort with a centralized numerical score for each citizen given for their actions, though newer reports say that this is a widespread misconception.<ref name=":46">{{Cite web |title=China's social credit score – untangling myth from reality {{!}} Merics |url=https://merics.org/en/opinion/chinas-social-credit-score-untangling-myth-reality |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=merics.org |date=11 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="jamestown_2110">{{cite journal |last1=Daum |first1=Jeremy |date=8 October 2021 |title=Far From a Panopticon, Social Credit Focuses on Legal Violations |url=https://jamestown.org/program/far-from-a-panopticon-social-credit-focuses-on-legal-violations/ |journal=China Brief |volume=21 |issue=19 |doi= |access-date=10 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="diplomat_2103">{{cite web |title=China's Social Credit System: Speculation vs. Reality |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/chinas-social-credit-system-speculation-vs-reality/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330122252/https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/chinas-social-credit-system-speculation-vs-reality/ |archive-date=30 March 2021 |website=The Diplomat}}</ref>

===Smart contracts===
[[Smart contract]]s, [[cryptocurrencies]], and [[decentralized autonomous organization]] are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance.<ref name=indiadao>{{cite news |last1=Bindra |first1=Jaspreet |title=Transforming India through blockchain |url=https://www.livemint.com/Technology/UZIex6fPPyAqVuTHqpzZiN/Transforming-India-through-blockchain.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=Livemint |date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Ed |date=10 April 2017 |title=Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/apr/10/do-digital-currencies-spell-the-end-of-capitalism |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain/> Cryptocurrencies are currencies, which are enabled by algorithms without a governmental [[central bank]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reiff |first1=Nathan |title=Blockchain Explained |website=Investopedia |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency]] often employs similar technology, but is differentiated from the fact that it does use a central bank. It is soon to be employed by major unions and governments such as the European Union and China. [[Smart contracts]] are self-executable [[contract]]s, whose objectives are the reduction of need in trusted governmental intermediators, arbitrations and enforcement costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Nick |author-link1=Nick Szabo |title=View of Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks |journal=First Monday |date=1997 |doi=10.5210/fm.v2i9.548 |s2cid=33773111 |url=https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |access-date=2020-05-31 |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410235953/https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |url-status=dead |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name=conbook>{{cite book |last1=Fries |first1=Martin |last2=P. Paal |first2=Boris |title=Smart Contracts |year=2019 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |jstor=j.ctvn96h9r |isbn=978-3-16-156911-1 |language=de}}</ref> A decentralized autonomous organization is an [[organization]] represented by smart contracts that is transparent, controlled by shareholders and not influenced by a central government.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organizations |url=https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |website=BlockchainHub |access-date=31 May 2020 |archive-date=24 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524103723/https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prusty |first=Narayan |date=27 Apr 2017 |title=Building Blockchain Projects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80EwDwAAQBAJ |location=Birmingham, UK |publisher=Packt |page=9 |isbn=9781787125339}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Chohan |first1=Usman W. |title=The Decentralized Autonomous Organization and Governance Issues |date=4 December 2017 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3082055}}.</ref> Smart contracts have been discussed for use in such applications as use in (temporary) [[employment contract]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3270867|title=The Gig Economy, Smart Contracts, and Disruption of Traditional Work Arrangements|first1=Seth|last1=Oranburg|first2=Liya|last2=Palagashvili|date=October 22, 2018|via=Social Science Research Network|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3270867|ssrn=3270867 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328657407|title=A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts}}</ref> and automatic transfership of funds and property (i.e. [[inheritance]], upon registration of a [[death certificate]]).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/581948/EPRS_IDA(2017)581948_EN.pdf How blockchain technology could change our lives]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@illuminatesofficial/business-inheritance-in-blockchain-b3fab4613c8c|title=Business inheritance in blockchain|first=Illuminates|last=Official|date=September 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/4-small-business-verticals-artificial-intelligence-blockchain-will-destroy-in-coming-decade.html|title=Blockchain and AI are coming to kill these 4 business verticals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://silentnotary.com/#project|title=Silent Notary - Blockchain Notary Service 100% events falsification protection|website=silentnotary.com}}</ref> Some countries such as Georgia and Sweden have already launched blockchain programs focusing on property ([[Title search|land titles]] and [[real estate]] ownership)<ref name=ukrainereuteers>{{cite news |last1=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first1=Gertrude |title=Ukraine launches big blockchain deal with tech firm Bitfury |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-bitfury-blockchain-idUSKBN17F0N2 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=Reuters |date=17 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bitfury.com/content/downloads/the_bitfury_group_republic_of_georgia_expand_blockchain_pilot_2_7_16.pdf|title=The Bitfury Group and Government of Republic of Georgia Expand Blockchain Pilot}}</ref><ref>[https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/inov_a_00276 A BLOCKCHAIN - Journals Gateway]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/corruption/integrity-forum/academic-papers/Georg%20Eder-%20Blockchain%20-%20Ghana_verified.pdf|title=Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles}}</ref> Ukraine is also looking at other areas too such as [[Public records|state registers]].<ref name=ukrainereuteers/>

===Algorithms in government agencies===
{{See also|Artificial intelligence in government}}
[[File:Team Rubicon - Rockaways - Palantir screenshot.jpg|thumb|Team Rubicon in the Rockaways Nov 12, 2012 - Palantir screenshot]]

According to a study of [[Stanford University]], 45% of the studied US federal agencies have experimented with AI and related machine learning (ML) tools up to 2020.<ref name=sstandford/> US federal agencies counted the number of [[artificial intelligence]] applications, which are listed below.<ref name=sstandford/> 53% of these applications were produced by in-house experts.<ref name=sstandford/> Commercial providers of residual applications include [[Palantir Technologies]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaked Palantir Doc Reveals Uses, Specific Functions And Key Clients |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/01/11/leaked-palantir-doc-reveals-uses-specific-functions-and-key-clients/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Agency Name !! Number of Use Cases
|-
| [[Office of Justice Programs]] || 12
|-
| [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] || 10
|-
| [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] || 9
|-
| [[Food and Drug Administration]] || 8
|-
| [[United States Geological Survey]] || 8
|-
| [[United States Postal Service]] || 8
|-
| [[Social Security Administration]] || 7
|-
| [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] || 6
|-
| [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] || 5
|-
| [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] || 4
|}

In 2012, [[NOPD]] started a collaboration with Palantir Technologies in the field of [[predictive policing]].<ref name=verge>{{cite news |last1=Winston |first1=Ali |title=Palantir has secretly been using New Orleans to test its predictive policing technology |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/27/17054740/palantir-predictive-policing-tool-new-orleans-nopd |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=The Verge |date=27 February 2018}}</ref> Besides Palantir's Gotham software, other similar ([[numerical analysis software]]) used by police agencies (such as the NCRIC) include [[SAS (software)|SAS]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/neapqg/300-californian-cities-secretly-have-access-to-palantir|title=300 Californian Cities Secretly Have Access to Palantir|first=Caroline|last=Haskins|date=July 12, 2019}}</ref>

In the fight against money laundering, [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network|FinCEN]] employs the FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System (FAIS) since 1995.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Senator |first1=Ted E. |last2=Wong |first2=Raphael W.H. |last3=Marrone |first3=Michael P. |last4=Llamas |first4=Winston M. |last5=Klinger |first5=Christina D. |last6=Khan |first6=A.F. Umar |last7=Cottini |first7=Matthew A. |last8=Goldberg |first8=Henry G. |last9=Wooton |first9=Jerry |title=The FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System: Identifying Potential Money Laundering from Reports of Large Cash Transactions |journal=AAAI |url=https://www.aaai.org/Library/IAAI/1995/iaai95-015.php |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=H. G. |last2=Senator |first2=T. E.  |chapter=The FinCEN AI System: Finding Financial Crimes in a Large Database of Cash Transactions |title=Agent Technology: Foundations, Applications, and Markets |date=1998 |pages=283–302 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-08344-0 |language=en}}</ref>

National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold [[medical record]]s. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a [[European Health Data Space]] which supports the use of health data.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en|title=Press corner|website=European Commission - European Commission}}</ref>

US [[Department of Homeland Security]] has employed the software ATLAS, which run on [[Amazon Cloud]]. It scanned more than 16.5 million of records of naturalized Americans and flagged approximately 124,000 of them for manual analysis and review by [[USCIS]] officers regarding [[denaturalization]].<ref name=debal>{{cite news |last1=Biddle |first1=Sam |last2=Saleh |date=August 25, 2021 |first2=Maryam |title=Little-Known Federal Software Can Trigger Revocation of Citizenship |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/08/25/atlas-citizenship-denaturalization-homeland-security/ |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=The Intercept}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cuccinelli Announces USCIS' FY 2019 Accomplishments and Efforts to Implement President Trump's Goals |website=USCIS |url=https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/cuccinelli-announces-uscis-fy-2019-accomplishments-and-efforts-to-implement-president-trumps-goals |access-date=21 September 2021 |date=16 October 2019}}</ref> There were flagged due to potential fraud, public safety and national security issues. Some of the scanned data came from [[Terrorist Screening Database]] and [[National Crime Information Center]].

The [[NarxCare]] is a US software,{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} which combines data from the prescription registries of various [[U.S. state]]s{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=40}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Romo|first=Vanessa|date=2018-05-08|title=Walmart Will Implement New Opioid Prescription Limits By End Of Summer|work=[[National Public Radio|NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/08/609442939/walmart-will-implement-new-opioid-prescription-limits-by-end-of-summer|access-date=2021-10-06}}</ref> and uses [[machine learning]] to generate various three-digit "risk scores" for prescriptions of medications and an overall "Overdose Risk Score", collectively referred to as Narx Scores,{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=847}} in a process that potentially includes [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] and criminal justice data{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} as well as court records.{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=848}}

In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its [[e-government]] to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services "push" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment, ...). One example is the automated registering of babies when they are born.<ref>See section on smart contracts; this is possible by means of a digital birth certificate, triggering a smart contract</ref> Estonia's [[E-government in Europe#Estonia|X-Road system]] will also be rebuilt to include even more privacy control and accountability into the way the government uses citizen's data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://govinsider.asia/innovation/marten-kaevats-national-digital-advisor-estonias-vision-for-an-invisible-government/|title=Exclusive: Estonia's vision for an 'invisible government'|date=March 20, 2019}}</ref>

In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works, ...) has been investigated. The paper discussing this possibility mentions that the use of ICT in procurement has several benefits such as increasing transparency, facilitating digital access to public tenders, reducing direct interaction between procurement officials and companies at moments of high integrity risk, increasing outreach and competition, and easier detection of irregularities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/costarica/costa-rica-public-procurement-system.pdf|title=Enhancing the use of competitive tendering in Costa Rica's Public Procurement System}}</ref>

Besides using e-tenders for regular [[public works]] (construction of buildings, roads, ...), e-tenders can also be used for [[reforestation]] projects and other [[carbon sink]] restoration projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/forestry-commission/about/procurement|title=Procurement at Forestry Commission|website=GOV.UK}}</ref> [[Carbon sink]] restoration projects [[Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks|may]] be part of the [[nationally determined contributions]] plans in order to reach the national [[Paris Agreement#Effectiveness|Paris agreement goals]]

Government [[procurement]] [[Audit management|audit software]] can also be used.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourceforge.net/software/audit/for-government/|title=Best Government Audit Software - 2023 Reviews & Comparison|website=sourceforge.net}}</ref><ref>[https://revista.tcu.gov.br/ojs/index.php/RTCU/article/download/1379/1561 Audit app: an effective tool for government procurement assurance]</ref> Audits are performed in some countries after [[Subsidy#Preventing fraud|subsidies have been received]].

Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is [[track and trace]] for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/track-your-driving-licence-application|title=Track your driving licence application|website=GOV.UK}}</ref>

Some government services use [[issue tracking system]] to keep track of ongoing issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/services/track-progress-reported-road-fault-or-issue|title=Track progress of a reported road fault or issue &#124; nidirect|date=May 18, 2018|website=www.nidirect.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://flsenate.gov/Tracker/help |title=Senate Tracker Help – The Florida Senate |website=flsenate.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/legislation |title=Legislative Search Results |website=congress.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://govtrack.us |title=GovTrack.us: Tracking the U.S. Congress |website=govtrack.us |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref>

===Justice by algorithm===
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the [[Split Up (expert system)|"Split Up" software]] in case of determining the percentage of a split after a [[divorce]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stranieri |first1=Andrew |last2=Zeleznikow |first2=John |title=Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Information and knowledge management - CIKM '95 |chapter=Levels of reasoning as the basis for a formalisation of argumentation |date=2 December 1995 |pages=333–339 |doi=10.1145/221270.221608 |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/221270.221608 |access-date=5 February 2022 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|isbn=0897918126 |s2cid=12179742 }}</ref> [[COMPAS (software)|COMPAS]] software is used in USA to assess the risk of [[recidivism]] in courts.<ref>{{cite news |title=A computer program used for bail and sentencing decisions was labeled biased against blacks. It's actually not that clear. |author=Sam Corbett-Davies |author2=Emma Pierson |author3=Avi Feller |author4=Sharad Goel |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/17/can-an-algorithm-be-racist-our-analysis-is-more-cautious-than-propublicas/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 17, 2016 |access-date=January 1, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=Aaron M. Bornstein |title=Are Algorithms Building the New Infrastructure of Racism? |magazine=[[Nautilus (science magazine)|Nautilus]] |date=December 21, 2017 |url=http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |access-date=January 2, 2018 |issue=55 |archive-date=January 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103011728/http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the statement of Beijing Internet Court, China is the first country to create an internet court or cyber court.<ref name=internetcourt>{{cite web |title=Beijing Internet Court launches online litigation service center |url=https://english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn/2019-07/01/c_190.htm |website=english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn |access-date=13 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China Now Has AI-Powered Judges |url=https://radiichina.com/china-now-has-ai-powered-robot-judges/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=RADII {{!}} Culture, Innovation, and Life in today's China |date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fish |first1=Tom |title=AI shock: China unveils 'cyber court' complete with AI judges and verdicts via chat app |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/science/1214019/ai-china-cyber-court-artificial-intelligence-judges-verdicts-chat-app |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=Express.co.uk |date=6 December 2019}}</ref> The Chinese AI judge is a [[virtual actor|virtual recreation]] of an actual female judge. She "will help the court's judges complete repetitive basic work, including litigation reception, thus enabling professional practitioners to focus better on their trial work".<ref name=internetcourt/> Also [[Estonia]] plans to employ artificial intelligence to decide small-claim cases of less than €7,000.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Can AI Be a Fair Judge in Court? Estonia Thinks So |url=https://www.wired.com/story/can-ai-be-fair-judge-court-estonia-thinks-so/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>

[[Lawbot]]s can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence,<ref>"ROSS Intelligence Lands Another Law Firm Client." The American Lawyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202769384977/ROSS-Intelligence-Lands-Another-Law-Firm-Client>.</ref> and others vary in sophistication and dependence on scripted [[algorithm]]s.<ref>CodeX Techindex. Stanford Law School, n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331081439/https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ |date=2022-03-31 }}>.</ref> Another legal technology [[chatbot]] application is [[DoNotPay]].

===Algorithms in education===
{{further|Ofqual exam results algorithm}}

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, in-person final exams were impossible for thousands of students.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Broussard |first1=Meredith |author-link=Meredith Broussard |title=Opinion {{!}} When Algorithms Give Real Students Imaginary Grades |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/08/opinion/international-baccalaureate-algorithm-grades.html |work=The New York Times |date=8 September 2020}}</ref> The public high school [[Westminster High School (Westminster, California)|Westminster High]] employed algorithms to assign grades. UK's [[Department for Education]] also employed a statistical calculus to assign final grades in [[A-levels]], due to the pandemic.<ref name="fuckthealgorithm">{{cite magazine |title=Skewed Grading Algorithms Fuel Backlash Beyond the Classroom |url=https://www.wired.com/story/skewed-grading-algorithms-fuel-backlash-beyond-classroom/ |access-date=26 September 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>

Besides use in grading, software systems like AI were used in preparation for college entrance exams.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/18/education/artificial-intelligence-tutors-teachers.html|title=The Machines Are Learning, and So Are the Students|first=Craig S.|last=Smith|work=The New York Times |date=December 18, 2019|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>

AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (e.g., Georgia Tech's Jill Watson)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationworld.com/could-artificial-intelligence-replace-our-teachers|title=Could Artificial Intelligence Replace Our Teachers? &#124; Education World}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/a-professor-built-an-ai-teaching-assistant-for-his-courses-and-it-could-shape-the-future-of-education-2017-3|title=A professor built an AI teaching assistant for his courses — and it could shape the future of education|first=Todd|last=Leopold|website=Business Insider}}</ref> and there is also an ongoing debate on whether perhaps teachers can be entirely replaced by AI systems (e.g., in [[homeschooling]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/roybi-robot/the-future-of-homeschooling-how-robots-are-changing-in-home-education-473ede32e228|title=The Future of Homeschooling: How Robots are Changing In-Home Education|first=Roybi|last=Robot|date=September 23, 2018}}</ref>

===AI politicians===
{{See also|Chatbot#Politics}}

In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the [[Tama, Tokyo|Tama city area of Tokyo]] as a human proxy for an [[artificial intelligence]] program.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michihito |last=Matsuda |title=POLITICS 2028: WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL REPLACE POLITICIANS |website=SlideShare |date=14 July 2018 |url=https://www.slideshare.net/MichihitoMatsuda/politics-2028-why-artificial-intelligence-will-replace-politicians-by-michihito-matsuda |access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> While election posters and campaign material used the term ''robot'', and displayed [[stock images]] of a feminine [[Android (robot)|android]], the "AI mayor" was in fact a [[machine learning algorithm]] trained using Tama city datasets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnston |first1=Lachlan |title=There's an AI Running for the Mayoral Role of Tama City, Tokyo |url=https://www.otaquest.com/tama-city-ai-mayor/ |website=OTAQUEST |access-date=22 September 2019 |date=12 April 2018 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205220420/https://www.otaquest.com/tama-city-ai-mayor/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The project was backed by high-profile executives Tetsuzo Matsumoto of [[Softbank]] and Norio Murakami of [[Google]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ai-mayor.com/|title=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019|website=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019}}</ref> Michihito Matsuda came third in the election, being defeated by [[Hiroyuki Abe (politician)|Hiroyuki Abe]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Werden Bots die besseren Politiker? |url=https://www.politik-kommunikation.de/ressorts/artikel/werden-bots-die-besseren-politiker-73781989 |access-date=31 October 2020 |work=Politik & Kommunikation |language=de}}</ref> Organisers claimed that the 'AI mayor' was programmed to analyze [[Online petition|citizen petitions]] put forward to the [[city council]] in a more 'fair and balanced' way than human politicians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Robot to run for mayor in Japan promising 'fairness and balance' for all|first1=Abigail|last1=O'Leary|first2=Anna |last2=Verdon|date=April 17, 2018|website=mirror |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/robot-run-mayor-japan-world-12377782}}</ref>

In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person.

In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a [[Virtual politician|candidate]] by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020 |date=26 November 2017 |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126111001/http://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 26, 2017 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

In 2022, the chatbot "Leader Lars" or "Leder Lars" was nominated for [[The Synthetic Party]] to run in the 2022 [[Danish Realm|Danish]] parliamentary election,<ref>{{cite news |last=Sternberg |first=Sarah |date=20 June 2022 |title=Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence |newspaper=[[Jyllands-Posten]] |url=https://jyllands-posten.dk/kultur/ECE14145385/danskere-vil-ind-paa-den-politiske-scene-med-kunstig-intelligens/ |access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref> and was built by the artist collective [https://computerlars.com Computer Lars].<ref>{{cite news |last=Diwakar |first=Amar |date=2022-08-22 |title=Can an AI-led Danish party usher in an age of algorithmic politics? |trans-title= |newspaper=[[TRT World]] |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-an-ai-led-danish-party-usher-in-an-age-of-algorithmic-politics-60008 |access-date=2022-08-22}}</ref> Leader Lars differed from earlier virtual politicians by leading a [[political party]] and by not pretending to be an objective candidate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Xiang |first=Chloe |date=13 October 2022 |title=This Danish Political Party Is Led by an AI |trans-title= |newspaper=[[Motherboard (website)|Vice: Motherboard]] |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/jgpb3p/this-danish-political-party-is-led-by-an-ai |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> This chatbot engaged in critical discussions on politics with users from around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hearing |first=Alice |date=14 October 2022 |title=A.I. chatbot is leading a Danish political party and setting its policies. Now users are grilling it for its stance on political landmines |url=https://fortune.com/2022/10/14/ai-chatbot-leader-lars-the-synthetic-party-discord-russia-ukraine-crimea-policy/ |work=Fortune }}</ref>

In 2023, In the Japanese town of Manazuru, a mayoral candidate called "[[AI Mayer]]" hopes to be the first AI-powered officeholder in Japan in November 2023. This candidacy is said to be supported by a group led by Michihito Matsuda <ref>{{cite news |date=2023-11-07|title=Danskere vil ind den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=AI Mayer run to the election in Manazuru Town|newspaper=Tokyo Sports |url= https://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/articles/-/282034 |access-date=2023-11-25}}</ref>

In the [[2024 United Kingdom general election]], a businessman named Steve Endacott ran for the constituency of [[Brighton Pavilion (UK Parliament constituency)|Brighton Pavilion]] as an AI avatar named "AI Steve",<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grierson |first=Jamie |date=2024-06-10 |title=Brighton general election candidate aims to be UK's first 'AI MP' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/jun/10/brighton-general-election-candidate-uk-first-ai-mp-artificial-intelligence |access-date=2024-06-15 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> saying that constituents could interact with AI Steve to shape policy. Endacott stated that he would only attend Parliament to vote based on policies which had garnered at least 50% support.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Meet AI Steve, the avatar standing as a candidate in the UK election |url=https://www.euronews.com/next/2024/06/13/meet-ai-steve-the-uks-avatar-election-candidate |access-date=2024-06-15 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> AI Steve placed last with 179 votes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brighton-hove.gov.uk/news/2024/results-general-election-4-july-2024|title=Results - General Election 4 July 2024|date=5 July 2024 |publisher=Brighton & Hove City Council|language=en-gb|access-date=8 July 2024}}</ref>

===Management of infection===
{{See also|Digital contact tracing|Disease surveillance|COVID-19 apps}}
[[File:A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing (Fig. 4 from Ferretti et al. 2020).jpg|thumb|A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferretti |first1=Luca |last2=Wymant |first2=Chris |last3=Kendall |first3=Michelle |last4=Zhao |first4=Lele |last5=Nurtay |first5=Anel |last6=Abeler-Dörner |first6=Lucie |last7=Parker |first7=Michael |last8=Bonsall |first8=David |last9=Fraser |first9=Christophe |title=Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing |journal=Science |date=8 May 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6491 |pages=eabb6936 |doi=10.1126/science.abb6936 |pmid=32234805 |pmc=7164555 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>]]

In February 2020, China launched a [[mobile app]] to deal with the [[Coronavirus disease 2019|Coronavirus outbreak]]<ref>{{cite news |title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact' app |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401 |access-date=7 March 2020 |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2020}}</ref> called "close-contact-detector".<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/apps-social/article/3050054/china-launches-coronavirus-close-contact-detector-effort-reassure|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' platform|date=February 12, 2020|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> Users are asked to enter their name and ID number. The app is able to detect "close contact" using surveillance data (i.e. using public transport records, including trains and flights)<ref name="auto"/> and therefore a potential risk of infection. Every user can also check the status of three other users. To make this inquiry users scan a Quick Response (QR) code on their smartphones using apps like [[Alipay]] or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' app|work=BBC News |date=February 11, 2020}}</ref> The close contact detector can be accessed via popular mobile apps including Alipay. If a potential risk is detected, the app not only recommends self-quarantine, it also alerts local health officials.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Angela |title=China's coronavirus app could have unintended consequences |website=MIT Technology Review |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/615199/coronavirus-china-app-close-contact-surveillance-covid-19-technology/ |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref>

Alipay also has the [[Alipay Health Code]] which is used to keep citizens safe. This system generates a QR code in one of three colors (green, yellow, or red) after users fill in a form on Alipay with personal details. A green code enables the holder to move around unrestricted. A yellow code requires the user to stay at home for seven days and red means a two-week quarantine. In some cities such as Hangzhou, it has become nearly impossible to get around without showing one's Alipay code.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/china-coronavirus-surveillance.html|title=In Coronavirus Fight, China Gives Citizens a Color Code, With Red Flags|first1=Paul |last1=Mozur|first2=Raymond |last2=Zhong|first3=Aaron|last3=Krolik|newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 2, 2020}}</ref>

In Cannes, France, monitoring software has been used on footage shot by [[CCTV]] cameras, allowing to monitor their compliance to local [[social distancing]] and [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|mask wearing]] during the COVID-19 pandemic. The system does not store identifying data, but rather allows to alert city authorities and police where breaches of the mask and mask wearing rules are spotted (allowing [[Fine (penalty)|fining]] to be carried out where needed). The algorithms used by the monitoring software can be incorporated into existing surveillance systems in public spaces (hospitals, stations, airports, shopping centres, ...) <ref>{{cite news |date=May 4, 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52529981|title=Coronavirus France: Cameras to monitor masks and social distancing|work=BBC News}}</ref>

Cellphone data is used to locate infected patients in South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and other countries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Manancourt |first1=Vincent |title=Coronavirus tests Europe's resolve on privacy |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-tests-europe-resolve-on-privacy-tracking-apps-germany-italy/ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=POLITICO |date=10 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/28/tech/korea-coronavirus-tracking-apps/index.html|title=Coronavirus mobile apps are surging in popularity in South Korea|author1=Ivan Watson |author2=Sophie Jeong |website=CNN|date=28 February 2020 }}</ref> In March 2020, the Israeli government enabled security agencies to track mobile phone data of people supposed to have coronavirus. The measure was taken to enforce quarantine and protect those who may come into contact with infected citizens.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tidy|first=Joe|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51930681|title=Coronavirus: Israel enables emergency spy powers|date=17 March 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref> Also in March 2020, [[Deutsche Telekom]] shared private cellphone data with the federal government agency, [[Robert Koch Institute]], in order to research and prevent the spread of the virus.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paksoy |first1=Yunus |title=German telecom giant shares private data with government amid privacy fears |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/german-telecom-giant-shares-private-data-with-government-amid-privacy-fears-34665 |access-date=20 March 2020 |agency=trtworld}}</ref> Russia deployed [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition technology]] to detect quarantine breakers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moscow deploys facial recognition technology for coronavirus quarantine |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-moscow-technology-idUSKBN20F1RZ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=Reuters |date=21 February 2020}}</ref> Italian regional health commissioner [[Giulio Gallera]] said that "40% of people are continuing to move around anyway", as he has been informed by mobile phone operators.<ref>{{cite news |title=Italians scolded for flouting lockdown as death toll nears 3,000 |url=https://www.post-gazette.com/news/world/2020/03/18/Italy-coronavirus-475-deaths-one-day-death-toll-2978-COVID-19-doctors/stories/202003180182 |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}</ref> In USA, Europe and UK, [[Palantir Technologies]] is taken in charge to provide COVID-19 tracking services.<ref>{{cite news |title=Palantir provides COVID-19 tracking software to CDC and NHS, pitches European health agencies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/04/01/palantir-coronavirus-cdc-nhs-gotham-foundry/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>

===Prevention and management of environmental disasters===
{{See also|Early warning system}}

[[Tsunami]]s can be detected by [[Tsunami warning system]]s. They can make use of AI.<ref>{{cite web |first=Magdalena |last=Osumi|title=How AI will help us better understand tsunami risks  |date=August 16, 2019|url=https://www.preventionweb.net/news/how-ai-will-help-us-better-understand-tsunami-risks |website=www.preventionweb.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221057355|title=Artificially Intelligent Tsunami Early Warning System}}</ref> [[Flooding]]s can also be detected using AI systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2019/08/10/artificial-intelligence-wildfires-flooding-rescue/|title=How Artificial Intelligence Could Help Fight Climate Change-Driven Wildfires and Save Lives|website=Fortune}}</ref> [[Wildfire]]s can be predicted using AI systems.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Predictive modeling of wildfires: A new dataset and machine learning approach|first1=Younes Oulad|last1=Sayad|first2=Hajar |last2=Mousannif|first3=Hassan|last3=Al Moatassime|date=March 1, 2019|journal=Fire Safety Journal |volume=104|pages=130–146|doi=10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.01.006|s2cid=116032143|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261272818|title=Artificial intelligence for forest fire prediction}}</ref> [[Wildfire#Detection|Wildfire detection is possible by AI systems]] (i.e. through satellite data, aerial imagery, and GPS phone personnel position) and can help in the evacuation of people during wildfires,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Zhao |first1=Xilei |last2=Lovreglio |first2=Ruggiero |last3=Kuligowski |first3=Erica |last4=Nilsson |first4=Daniel |date=April 15, 2020 |title=Using Artificial Intelligence for Safe and Effective Wildfire Evacuations |journal=Fire Technology |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=483–485 |doi=10.1007/s10694-020-00979-x |s2cid=218801709 |doi-access=free}}</ref> to investigate how householders responded in wildfires<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Xilei |last2=Xu |first2=Yiming |last3=Lovreglio |first3=Ruggiero |last4=Kuligowski |first4=Erica |last5=Nilsson |first5=Daniel |last6=Cova |first6=Thomas J. |last7=Wu |first7=Alex |last8=Yan |first8=Xiang |date=2022-06-01 |title=Estimating wildfire evacuation decision and departure timing using large-scale GPS data |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192092200102X |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=107 |pages=103277 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2022.103277 |issn=1361-9209|arxiv=2109.07745 }}</ref> and spotting wildfire in real time using [[computer vision]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/05/tech/ai-wildfires/index.html |title=How AI is helping spot wildfires faster|author1=Rachel Metz |others=Video by John General |website=CNN|date=5 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/11/06/california-has-million-acres-forest-this-company-is-training-artificial-intelligence-scour-it-all-wildfire/|title=California has 33 million acres of forest. This company is training artificial intelligence to scour it all for wildfire. |first=Peter|last=Holley |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Earthquake warning system|Earthquake detection systems]] are now improving alongside the development of AI technology through measuring seismic data and implementing complex algorithms to improve detection and prediction rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Sheng |first2=Yixiao |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Beroza |first4=Gregory C. |date=2019 |title=STanford EArthquake Dataset (STEAD): A Global Data Set of Seismic Signals for AI |journal=IEEE Access |volume=7 |pages=179464–179476 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2947848 |s2cid=208111095 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019IEEEA...7q9464M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banna |first1=Md. Hasan Al |last2=Taher |first2=Kazi Abu |last3=Kaiser |first3=M. Shamim |last4=Mahmud |first4=Mufti |last5=Rahman |first5=Md. Sazzadur |last6=Hosen |first6=A. S. M. Sanwar |last7=Cho |first7=Gi Hwan |date=2020 |title=Application of Artificial Intelligence in Predicting Earthquakes: State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges |journal=IEEE Access |volume=8 |pages=192880–192923 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3029859 |s2cid=226292959 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020IEEEA...8s2880B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-09 |title=How Location Intelligence Can Help Protect Lives During Disasters |url=https://ehsdailyadvisor.blr.com/2022/02/how-location-intelligence-can-help-protect-lives-during-disasters/ |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=EHS Daily Advisor |language=en-US}}</ref> Earthquake monitoring, phase picking, and seismic signal detection have developed through AI algorithms of [[Deep learning|deep-learning]], analysis, and computational models.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Ellsworth |first2=William L. |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Chuang |first4=Lindsay Y. |last5=Beroza |first5=Gregory C. |date=2020-08-07 |title=Earthquake transformer—an attentive deep-learning model for simultaneous earthquake detection and phase picking |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=3952 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17591-w |pmid=32770023 |pmc=7415159 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3952M |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> [[Locust]] breeding areas can be approximated using machine learning, which could help to stop locust swarms in an early phase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gómez |first1=Diego |last2=Salvador |first2=Pablo |last3=Sanz |first3=Julia |last4=Casanova |first4=Carlos |last5=Taratiel |first5=Daniel |last6=Casanova |first6=Jose Luis |date=August 15, 2018 |title=Machine learning approach to locate desert locust breeding areas based on ESA CCI soil moisture |journal=Journal of Applied Remote Sensing |volume=12 |issue=3 |at=036011 |bibcode=2018JARS...12c6011G |doi=10.1117/1.JRS.12.036011 |doi-access=free |s2cid=52230139}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Benefits===
{{See also|Techno-progressivism}}

Algorithmic regulation is supposed to be a system of governance where more exact data, collected from citizens via their smart devices and computers, is used to more efficiently organize human life as a collective.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCormick |first1=Tim |title=A brief exchange with Tim O'Reilly about "algorithmic regulation" {{!}} Tim McCormick |date=15 February 2014 |url=https://tjm.org/2014/02/15/a-brief-exchange-with-tim-oreilly-about-algorithmic-regulation/ |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Why the internet of things could destroy the welfare state |url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jul/20/rise-of-data-death-of-politics-evgeny-morozov-algorithmic-regulation |access-date=2 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=19 July 2014}}</ref> As [[Deloitte]] estimated in 2017, automation of US government work could save 96.7 million federal hours annually, with a potential savings of $3.3 billion; at the high end, this rises to 1.2 billion hours and potential annual savings of $41.1 billion.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eggers |first1=illiam D. |last2=Schatsky |first2=David |last3=Viechnick |first3=Peter |title=Demystifying artificial intelligence in government |website=Deloitte Insights |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/cognitive-technologies/artificial-intelligence-government.html |access-date=4 April 2020}}</ref>

===Criticism===
There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include [[Algorithmic bias|algorithms becoming susceptible to bias]],<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government|last=Mehr|first=Hila|date=August 2017|website=ash.harvard.edu|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.capgemini.com/consulting/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/10/ai-in-public-sector.pdf|title=Unleashing the potential of Artificial Intelligence in the Public Sector|last=Capgemini Consulting|date=2017|website=www.capgemini.com|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> and the accountability for any such decisions.<ref name=":6" /> According to a 2016's book [[Weapons of Math Destruction]], algorithms and [[big data]] are suspected to increase inequality due to opacity, scale and damage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Shikha |title=Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy |journal=Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers |date=June 2019 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1177/0256090919853933 |s2cid=198779932 |issn=0256-0909|doi-access=free }}</ref>

There is also a serious concern that [[gaming the system|gaming]] by the regulated parties might occur, once more [[Right to explanation|transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance]], regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use [[adversarial machine learning]].<ref name=sstandford/><ref name=socialmachine/> According to [[Yuval Noah Harari|Harari]], the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harari |first1=Story by Yuval Noah |title=Why Technology Favors Tyranny |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny/568330/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref>

In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived being high risk for committing [[welfare fraud]], which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Europe Limits Government by Algorithm. The US, Not So Much |url=https://www.wired.com/story/europe-limits-government-algorithm-us-not-much/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref> This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing [[Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR).<ref>Rechtbank Den Haag 5 February 2020, C-09-550982-HA ZA 18-388 (English), {{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:1878}}</ref>

The contributors of the 2019 documentary [[iHuman (2019 film)|iHuman]] expressed apprehension of "infinitely stable dictatorships" created by government AI.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Amber |title='iHuman': IDFA Review |url=https://www.screendaily.com/reviews/ihuman-idfa-review/5144918.article |website=Screen |access-date=21 April 2020}}</ref>

Due to public criticism, the Australian government announced the suspension of [[Robodebt scheme]] key functions in 2019, and a review of all debts raised using the programme.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rinta-Kahila |first1=Tapani |last2=Someh |first2=Ida |last3=Gillespie |first3=Nicole |last4=Indulska |first4=Marta |last5=Gregor |first5=Shirley |title=Algorithmic decision-making and system destructiveness: A case of automatic debt recovery |journal=European Journal of Information Systems |date=4 May 2022 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=313–338 |doi=10.1080/0960085X.2021.1960905|s2cid=239735326 |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/294609 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 2020, algorithms assigning exam grades to students in the [[2020 UK GCSE and A-Level grading controversy|UK sparked open protest]] under the banner "Fuck the algorithm."<ref name="fuckthealgorithm" /> This protest was successful and the grades were taken back.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reuter |first1=Markus |title=Fuck the Algorithm - Jugendproteste in Großbritannien gegen maschinelle Notenvergabe erfolgreich |url=https://netzpolitik.org/2020/fuck-the-algorithm-jugendproteste-in-grossbritannien-gegen-maschinelle-notenvergabe-erfolgreich/ |access-date=3 October 2020 |work=netzpolitik.org |date=17 August 2020 |language=de-DE}}</ref>

In 2020, the US government software [[ATLAS (software)|ATLAS]], which run on [[Amazon Cloud]], sparked uproar from activists and Amazon's own employees.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Government Is Using an Algorithm to Flag American Citizens for Denaturalization: Report |url=https://gizmodo.com/u-s-government-is-using-an-algorithm-to-flag-american-1847565703 |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=Gizmodo}}</ref>

In 2021, Eticas Foundation has launched a database of governmental algorithms called ''Observatory of Algorithms with Social Impact'' (OASI).<ref>{{cite press release |title=OASI, the first search engine to find the algorithms that governments and companies use on citizens |url=https://www.eureporter.co/lifestyle/computer-technology/2021/10/11/oasi-the-first-search-engine-to-find-the-algorithms-that-governments-and-companies-use-on-citizens/ |access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref>

====Algorithmic bias and transparency====
{{Main|Algorithmic bias}}

An initial approach towards transparency included the [[Open-source software|open-sourcing of algorithms]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Heald|first=David|title=Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?|date=2006-09-07|publisher=British Academy|isbn=978-0-19-726383-9|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197263839.003.0002}}</ref> Software code can be looked into and improvements can be proposed through [[Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities|source-code-hosting facilities]].

===Public acceptance===
A 2019 poll conducted by [[IE University]]'s Center for the Governance of Change in Spain found that 25% of citizens from selected European countries were somewhat or totally in favor of letting an artificial intelligence make important decisions about how their country is run.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Tech Insights (2019) {{!}} IE CGC |website=Center for the Governance of Change |access-date=11 April 2020 |url=https://docs.ie.edu/cgc/European-Tech-Insights-2019.pdf}}</ref> The following table lists the results by country:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country !! Percentage
|-
| France || 25%
|-
| Germany || 31%
|-
| Ireland || 29%
|-
| Italy || 28%
|-
| Netherlands || 43%
|-
| Portugal || 19%
|-
| Spain || 26%
|-
| UK || 31%
|}

Researchers found some evidence that when citizens perceive their political leaders or security providers to be untrustworthy, disappointing, or immoral, they prefer to replace them by artificial agents, whom they consider to be more reliable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spatola |first1=Nicolas |last2=Macdorman |first2=Karl F. |title=Why Real Citizens Would Turn to Artificial Leaders |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=11 July 2021 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=26:1–26:24 |doi=10.1145/3447954 |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free |hdl=1805/30988 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The evidence is established by survey experiments on university students of all genders.

A 2021 poll by [[IE University]] indicates that 51% of Europeans are in favor of reducing the number of national parliamentarians and reallocating these seats to an algorithm. This proposal has garnered substantial support in Spain (66%), Italy (59%), and Estonia (56%). Conversely, the citizens of Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Sweden largely oppose the idea.<ref name=ie2021>{{cite web |title=EUROPEAN TECH INSIGHTS 2021 |url=https://docs.ie.edu/cgc/IE-CGC-European-Tech-Insights-2021-%28Part-II%29.pdf |website=IE University |access-date=29 June 2024 |date=2021}}</ref> The survey results exhibit significant generational differences. Over 60% of Europeans aged 25-34 and 56% of those aged 34-44 support the measure, while a majority of respondents over the age of 55 are against it. International perspectives also vary: 75% of Chinese respondents support the proposal, whereas 60% of Americans are opposed.<ref name=ie2021/>

==In popular culture==
The novels [[Daemon (novel series)|''Daemon'']] and ''[[Freedom™]]'' by [[Daniel Suarez (author)|Daniel Suarez]] describe a fictional scenario of global algorithmic regulation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rieger |first1=Frank |title=Understanding the Daemon |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/english-version-understanding-the-daemon-1621404.html |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=FAZ.NET |language=de}}</ref> [[Matthew De Abaitua]]'s ''If Then'' imagines an algorithm supposedly based on "fairness" recreating a premodern rural economy.<ref>Stainforth, Elizabeth and Jo Lindsay Walton. "Computing Utopia: The Horizons of Computational Economies in History and Science Fiction." Science Fiction Studies, vol. 46 no. 3, 2019, p. 471-489. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/sfs.2019.0084.</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Anti-corruption]]
* [[Civic technology]]
* [[Code for America]]
* [[Cyberpunk]]
* [[Cybersyn]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* [[Digital Nations]]
* [[Distributed ledger technology law]]
* [[Dutch childcare benefits scandal]]
* [[ERulemaking]]
* [[Lawbot]]
* [[Legal informatics]]
* [[Management cybernetics]]
* [[Multivac]]
* [[Predictive analytics]]
* [[Sharing economy]]
* [[Smart contract]]
* [[Algorithmocracy]] - [https://algorithmocracy.org/]
{{div col end}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
* {{Cite book |last=Lessig |first=Lawrence |year=2006 |title=Code: Version 2.0 |url=https://lessig.org/product/codev2 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |oclc=133467669}} Wikipedia article: ''[[Code: Version 2.0]]''.
* {{Cite journal |last=Oliva |first=Jennifer |date=2020-01-08 |title=Prescription-Drug Policing: The Right To Health Information Privacy Pre- and Post-Carpenter |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol69/iss4/1 |journal=[[Duke Law Journal]] |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=775–853 |issn=0012-7086}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Szalavitz |first=Maia |date=October 2021 |title=The Pain Algorithm |url=https://www.wired.com/story/opioid-drug-addiction-algorithm-chronic-pain |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|WIRED]] |pages=36–47 |issn=1059-1028}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |last2=Lodge |first2=Martin |year=2019 |title=Algorithmic Regulation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198838494}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|algocracy}}
* [https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ Government by Algorithm?] by Data for Policy 2017 Conference
* [https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf Government by Algorithm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2022-08-15 }} by [[Stanford University]]
* [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/624262/EPRS_STU(2019)624262_EN.pdf A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency] by [[European Parliament]]
* [https://academic.oup.com/comjnl/article/62/3/448/5070384 Algorithmic Government] by Zeynep Engin and Philip Treleaven, [[University College London]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fsz6Zw1BkTg Algorithmic Government] by Prof. Philip C. Treleaven of [[University College London]]
* [https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government] by Hila Mehr of [[Harvard University]]
* [https://eticasfoundation.org/oasi/register/ The OASI Register], algorithms with social impact
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt11279794/?ref_=nm_flmg_dr_1 ''iHuman''] (Documentary, 2019) by [[Tonje Hessen Schei]]
* [https://motivatingspeech.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-india-jaspreet-bindra/ How Blockchain can transform India: Jaspreet Bindra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628064819/https://motivatingspeech.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-india-jaspreet-bindra/ |date=2021-06-28 }}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sr2ga3BBMTc Can An AI Design Our Tax Policy?]
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09540962.2020.1821514/ New development: Blockchain—a revolutionary tool for the public sector], An introduction on the Blockchain's usage in the public sector by Vasileios Yfantis
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/cesar_hidalgo_a_bold_idea_to_replace_politicians A bold idea to replace politicians] by [[César Hidalgo]]

[[Category:Government by algorithm| ]]
[[Category:Applications of artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Collaboration]]
[[Category:E-government]]
[[Category:Information society|*]]
[[Category:Social influence]]
[[Category:Social information processing]]
[[Category:Social networks]]
[[Category:Social systems]]
[[Category:Sociology of technology]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Technological utopianism]]
[[Category:Technology in society]]
[[Category:Transhumanism]]