View source for History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

{{Short description|Aspect in of history}}
{{About|the intra-European military [[European integration|integration]] that has been undertaken since [[World War II]], and has led to the present [[Common Security and Defence Policy]] of the [[European Union]]|the development of transatlantic defence ties in the same period|History of NATO}}
{{History of the European Union}}
This article outlines the '''history of the [[Common Security and Defence Policy]]''' ('''CSDP''') of the [[European Union]] (EU), a part of the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP).

The [[Aftermath of World War II|post-war period]] saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence [[European integration|integration]] intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]] and the proposed [[Treaty establishing the European Defence Community|European Defence Community]] were respectively cannibalised by the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant [[Western European Union]] (WEU) succeeded the Western Union's remainder in 1954. In 1970 the [[European Political Cooperation]] (EPC) brought about the [[European Communities]]' initial foreign policy coordination, which in turn was replaced by the newly founded EU's CFSP pillar in 1993. The WEU was reactivated in 1984 and given new tasks, and in 1996 NATO agreed to let it develop a '''European Security and Defence Identity''' ('''ESDI''').<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/summary/glossary/european_security_defence_identity.html|title = Glossary of summaries – EUR-Lex}}</ref> The 1998 [[Saint-Malo declaration|St. Malo declaration]] signalled that the traditionally hesitant [[United Kingdom]] was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/138147|title = EU to spend €1.5bn a year on joint defence| date=7 June 2017 }}</ref> This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the '''European Security and Defence Policy''' ('''ESDP''') in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the [[European Security Strategy]] identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 [[European Union Global Strategy|a new security strategy]] was introduced, which along with the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russian annexation of Crimea]], the scheduled [[Brexit|British withdrawal]] from the EU and the [[2016 United States presidential election|election of Trump]] as US President have given the CSDP a new impetus.

== Origins ==
{{Main|Ideas of European unity before 1948|Treaty of Dunkirk}}
Towards the end of World War II, the [[Allies of World War II|There Allied Powers]] discussed during the [[Tehran Conference]] and the ensuing [[Moscow Conference (1943)|1943 Moscow Conference]] the plans to establish joint institutions. This led to a decision at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1944 to include Free France as the Fourth Allied Power and to form a [[European Advisory Commission]], later replaced by the [[Council of Foreign Ministers]] and the [[Allied Control Council]], following the German surrender and the [[Potsdam Agreement]] in [[1945]].

The growing rift among the Four Powers became evident as a result of the rigged [[1947 Polish legislative election]] which constituted an open breach of the [[Yalta Agreement]], followed by the announcement of the [[Truman Doctrine]] on 12 March 1947. On 4 March 1947 France and the United Kingdom signed the [[Treaty of Dunkirk]] for mutual assistance in the event of future military aggression in the aftermath of [[World War II]] against any of the pair. The rationale for the treaty was the threat of a potential future military attack, specifically a Soviet one in practice, though publicised under the disguise of a German one, according to the official statements. The treaty entered into force on 8 September 1947. Immediately following the [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|February 1948 coup d'état]] by the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]], the [[London Six-Power Conference]] was held, resulting in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the [[Cold War]]. The remainder of the year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration.

== 1948–1954: Western Union, its Defence Organisation and failure of the European Defence Community ==
{{Main|Treaty of Brussels|Western Union (alliance)|Western Union Defence Organisation|Treaty establishing the European Defence Community|West German rearmament}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Pact van Brussel. De 5 ministers, Bestanddeelnr 902-6324.jpg|Foreign ministers of the five European powers at the signing of the [[Treaty of Brussels]]
File:Western Union Standard.jpg|British [[Royal Military Police|military police]] displaying the [[Flag of the Western Union|Western Union Standard]]
File:Château des Fougères.jpg|The high-level headquarters of Chairman [[Bernard Montgomery|Montgomery]] of the Western Union C-in-C Committee, situated in [[:fr:Château des Fougères (Avon)|Château des Fougères]] in [[Fontainebleau]]'s neighbouring commune [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]]
File:Henri IV quarter, Palace of Fontainebleau.jpg|Western Union air, sea and land commands, situated in the Henry IV quarter at the [[Palace of Fontainebleau]]
File:Gloster Meteor poster September 1949.jpg|1949 poster advertising the [[Gloster Meteor]] [[Fighter aircraft|jet fighter]] as the ''spearhead of Western Union defence''
File:Organigramme of the Western Union.png|Organigramme of the Western Union
File:First NATO flag with Eisenhower.jpg|[[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]], who served as [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]], depicted on 8 October 1951 in front of the flag of NATO's [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]] (SHAPE). WUDO's plans, structures and responsibility of defending Western Europe were transferred to SHAPE.
File:Organisation of the European Defence Community.svg|Organisational chart planned for the EDC, including relations to  [[NATO]], with specific reference to the [[North Atlantic Council]] and the [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] (SACEUR)
File:René Pleven.jpg|French Prime Minister [[René Pleven]] (1951)
</gallery>

The Treaty of Dunkirk was in essence succeeded in March 1948 by Article 4 of the [[Treaty of Brussels]], to which the [[Benelux]] countries were also party, established in September the same year the [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]] (WU), also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation (BTO), with an allied European command structure under British Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery|Montgomery]]. [[West Germany]] had been occupied by [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] and lacked its own means of defense. The military arm of the WU was referred to as the [[Western Union Defence Organisation]] (WUDO). The overall command structure was patterned after the wartime [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF), which included a joint planning staff.<ref name=Maloney>{{cite book |title= Secure Command of the Sea: NATO Command Organization and Planning for the Cold War at Sea, 1945–1954 |last= Maloney |first= Sean M. |year= 1995 |publisher= [[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |location= [[Annapolis, Maryland]] |isbn= 1-55750-562-4 |pages= 66–67 }}</ref> WUDO could also be compared with the defence organisation in the United Kingdom.

When the division of Europe into two opposing camps became considered unavoidable, the threat of the USSR became much more important than the threat of German rearmament. Western Europe, therefore, sought a new mutual defence pact involving the [[United States]], a powerful military force for such an alliance. The United States, concerned with containing the influence of the USSR, was responsive. Secret meetings began by the end of March 1949 between [[United States|American]], [[Canada|Canadian]] and British officials to initiate the negotiations that led to the signing of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] on 4 April 1949 in [[Washington, DC]]. The need to back up the commitments of the North Atlantic Treaty with appropriate political and military structures led to the creation of the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO). In December 1950, with the appointment of General Eisenhower as the first [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] (SACEUR), the members of the Treaty of Brussels decided to transfer the headquarters, personnel, and plans of the [[Western Union Defence Organisation]] (WUDO) to NATO.<ref>[https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/written-answers/1957/feb/18/brussels-treaty-organisation-resolution Hansard extract] February 18, 1957</ref> NATO's [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]] (SHAPE) took over responsibility for the defence of Western Europe, while the physical headquarters in Fontainebleau were transformed into NATO's [[Allied Joint Force Command Brunssum|Headquarters, Allied Forces Central Europe]] (AFCENT).<ref name=ElusiveQuest>{{cite book |title= The elusive quest for European security: from EDC to CFSP |last= Duke |first= Simon |year= 2000 |publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location= Basingstoke, UK |isbn= 978-0-312-22402-8 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/elusivequestfore00simo/page/13 13–14] |url= https://archive.org/details/elusivequestfore00simo/page/13 |access-date= 2010-11-27 }}</ref><ref name=DYK>{{cite web | title= Did you know that Europe already had a defensive military alliance prior to NATO? | url= http://www.aco.nato.int/page20923100.aspx | work= [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Allied Command Operations (ACO)]] | publisher= [[NATO]] | year= 2010 | access-date= 2010-08-08 | archive-date= 2015-09-21 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150921141945/http://www.aco.nato.int/page20923100.aspx | url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name=Kaplan>{{cite book |title= NATO 1948: the birth of the transatlantic Alliance |last= Kaplan |first= Lawrence S. |year= 2007 |publisher= [[Rowman & Littlefield]] Publishers, Inc. |location= [[Lanham, Maryland]] |isbn= 978-0-7425-3917-4 |pages= 139–165 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UV-ti1sYcbcC&q=%http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml&pg=PA139 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Brussels Treaty Organisation (Resolution) |url= https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/written-answers/1957/feb/18/brussels-treaty-organisation-resolution |journal= [[Hansard]] |publisher= [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom]] |location= [[London]] |volume=565 |id=cc19-20W |date= 18 February 1957 |access-date=2010-11-27}}</ref>

The establishment of NATO and the [[International Authority for the Ruhr]], along with the signing of a succession of treaties establishing [[OECD|Organisation for European Economic Cooperation]] (April 1948), the [[Council of Europe]] (May 1949) and the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (April 1951), left the Western Union and its founding [[Treaty of Brussels]] devoid of much of their prominence. By 1951, the fear of possible [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aggression in Europe, as well as the ''Pleven plan'', proposed in 1950 by then French Prime Minister [[René Pleven]] in response to the American call for the [[West German rearmament|rearmament of West Germany]], led France, West Germany, Italy and the [[Benelux]] – the [[Inner six]] of [[European integration]] – to propose a scheme that was similar in nature to the ECSC but concerned defence; the [[European Defense Community]] (EDC). The EDC would have consisted of a pan-European military divided into national components, with a common budget, common institutions, common arms and centralised procurement. At the time, this was favoured over admitting Germany to NATO. The [[General Treaty]] ({{lang-de|Deutschlandvertrag}}) of 1952 formally named the EDC as a prerequisite of the end of Allied occupation of Germany. The EDC founding treaty did not enter into force, however, as it failed to obtain approval for ratification on 30 August 1954 in the [[National Assembly of France|French National Assembly]] where [[Gaullism|Gaullists]] feared for national sovereignty and [[French Communist Party|Communists]] opposed a European military consolidation that could rival the [[Soviet Union]].

== 1954–1970: A dormant WEU is established ==
{{Main|London and Paris Conferences|Modified Brussels Treaty|Western European Union}}
The failure to establish the EDC resulted in the 1954 amendment of the [[Treaty of Brussels]] at the [[London and Paris Conferences]], which in replacement of EDC established the political [[Western European Union]] (WEU) out of the Western Union. While the WEU was not as broad or powerful as the previously proposed EDC, it was nevertheless sufficient for the ''[[General Treaty|Deutschlandvertrag]]'' to come into force and therefore to end the occupation of West Germany, give it full sovereignty and admit it as an ally in the [[Cold War]], both in the WEU and NATO. Italy was also admitted in these organisations. From this point defence aims had shifted to the Soviet Union.

On a sidenote, had the [[1955 Saar Statute referendum|1955 referendum]] on the [[Saar statute]], held in the [[Saar (protectorate)|Saar Protectorate]], not failed, territory would have become an independent polity under the auspices of a European [[Commissioner]], to be appointed by the Council of Ministers of the [[Western European Union]], while remaining in the [[economic union]] with [[France]].<ref name=CVCE>[http://www.cvce.eu/viewer/-/content/26859090-52d0-4850-9019-92748182042a/en;jsessionid=D56ABFCD5B07575A729089229C359CD3 Results of the referendum on the Saar Statute] CVCE</ref> Its rejection by voters was taken as an indication that they would rather reunite with [[West Germany]].<ref name=CS>[http://countrystudies.us/germany/51.htm Rearmament and the European Defense Community] [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]</ref> On 27 October 1956, France and West Germany concluded the [[Saar Treaty]] establishing that Saarland should be allowed to join West Germany as provided by article 23 of its constitution ([[Grundgesetz]]), so Saarland became a [[States of Germany|state of Germany]] with effect from 1 January 1957.<ref name=CS />

On 1 January 1960, in accordance with a decision taken on 21 October the previous year by the Council of Western European Union and with Resolution(59)23 adopted on 16 November 1959 by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, the WEU activities in social and cultural areas (Social Committee, Public Health Committee, Joint Committee on the Rehabilitation and Resettlement of the Disabled and Cultural Committee) were transferred to the [[Council of Europe]], which was already running programmes in these fields. The European Universities Committee (see CM(60)4; C(59)127 and CM(59)130) was transferred to the Council of Europe separately from the rest of WEU cultural activities.<ref>https://www.coe.int/en/web/documents-records-archives-information/timeline-1948#{"19133186":[0]}</ref>

== 1970–1984: Initial co-ordination of EC foreign policy ==
{{Main|European Political Co-operation}}
In the wake of the EDC's failure, [[Charles de Gaulle]] proposed the [[Fouchet Plan]] in 1961, which would have created a more intergovernmentally oriented "Union of European Peoples", with a common defence policy. The Fouchet Plan was met with scepticism among the other member states of the European Communities, and never implemented.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) was introduced as an initial coordination of foreign policy within the European Communities (EC). The involvement of the [[United Kingdom]] guaranteed its [[Atlanticist]] nature. Although the EPC was mainly intergovernmental, the [[European Commission]] would be able to express its opinion if matters within its competencies were concerned. The EPC was amended and strengthened in the so-called Copenhagen and London reports in 1973 and 1981, respectively, and codified (formalised) in 1986 with the [[Single European Act]].

Although the EPC enhanced the European Communities' role on the international scene during the 1970s, notably in the Middle East conflict and in the creation of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe]], it was considered a mixed success.

== 1984–1998: WEU revived, EU established ==
{{Main|Petersberg Declaration|Maastricht Treaty|Common Foreign and Security Policy}}
From the late 1970s onwards, efforts were made to add a security dimension to the EC's EPC. Opposition to these efforts from Denmark, Greece and Ireland led the remaining EC countries – all WEU members – to reactivate the WEU by means of the 1984 [[Rome Declaration]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/news/06/0616/jargon.shtml|title = BBC Politics 97}}</ref> Following the [[European Communities]]' 1986 [[Single European Act]], which codified the EPC in EU law contained little of substance on EC defence integration, the WEU member states adopted the ''Platform on European Security Interests'', which emphasised the need for intra-European defence integration and strengthening of NATO's European pillar.

{{Cquote
|text=We recall our commitment to build a European union in accordance with the [[Single European Act]], which we all signed as members of the <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[European Communities]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>. We are convinced that the construction of an integrated Europe will remain incomplete as long as it does not include security and defence.
|author=''Platform on European Security Interests''  |source= [[Western European Union]] (The Hague, 27 October 1987)<ref>https://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/2002/1/29/444f642c-62ed-4fd9-8136-a129d2de3783/publishable_en.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
}}

In 1992, the WEU adopted the [[Petersberg Declaration]], defining the so-called ''Petersberg tasks'' designed to cope with the possible destabilising of Eastern Europe. The WEU itself had no standing army but depended on cooperation between its members. Its tasks ranged from the most modest to the most robust, and included [[Humanitarian]], rescue and [[peacekeeping]] tasks as well as tasks for combat forces in [[crisis management]], including [[peacemaking]].<ref>[http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/petersberg_tasks_en.htm EUROPA – Glossary – Petersberg tasks]</ref>

Upon the entry into force of the [[Maastricht Treaty]] in 1993, the [[European Union]] was established, consisting of three ''[[Three pillars of the European Union|pillars]]'', of which the first was the [[European Communities]], one was the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP) – a replacement of the European Communities' EPC – and the last was the [[Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters|Justice and Home Affairs]] (JHA). The CFSP pillar became a natural basis for a further deepening of EU defence policy cooperation.

At the 1996 NATO ministerial meeting in Berlin, it was agreed that the WEU would oversee the creation of a European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) within NATO structures.<ref>[http://www.nato.int/docu/comm/1996/9606-brl/9606-brl.htm NATO Ministerial Meetings Berlin – 3–4 June 1996<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The ESDI was intended as a European 'pillar' within NATO, partly to allow European countries to act militarily where [[NATO]] wished not to, and partly to alleviate the United States' financial burden of maintaining [[military base]]s in Europe, which it had done since the [[Cold War]]. The Berlin agreement allowed European countries (through the WEU) to use NATO assets if it so wished.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="165px">
File:Petersberg-077.JPG|[[Hotel Petersberg]], where the Petersberg tasks were defined in 1992.
File:Flag of the Western European Union (1993-1995).svg|[[Flag of the Western European Union|Flag]] of the Western European Union (1993–1995)
File:Flag of the Western European Union.svg|[[Flag of the Western European Union|Flag]] of the Western European Union (1995–2011)
File:Emblem of the Western European Armaments Group.svg|Emblem of the [[Western European Armaments Group]] (1992–2005)
</gallery>

== 1998–2009: EU takes over WEU tasks, gains autonomous structures ==
[[File:Tony Blair and Jacques Chirac.jpg|thumb|British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair|Blair]] and French President [[Jacques Chirac|Chirac]], who signed the 1998 [[Saint-Malo declaration|St. Malo declaration]], which paved the way for an autonomous EU defence arm]]
{{Further|Saint-Malo declaration|Helsinki Headline Goal|Treaty of Amsterdam|Berlin Plus agreement|Treaty of Nice|European Union Military Staff|European Union Military Committee|European Security Strategy}}
On 4 December 1998 the United Kingdom, which had traditionally opposed the introduction of European autonomous defence capacities, signed the [[Saint-Malo declaration]] together with France.
{{Cquote
|text=[...] the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed up by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and a readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises.
| source=[[Saint-Malo declaration]], 4 December 1998<ref>https://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/2008/3/31/f3cd16fb-fc37-4d52-936f-c8e9bc80f24f/publishable_en.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
}}
This marked a turning point as the declaration endorsed the creation of a European security and defense policy, including a European military force capable of autonomous action.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Franco–British St. Malo Declaration (4 December 1998)|date = 22 June 2015|url = http://www.cvce.eu/obj/franco_british_st_malo_declaration_4_december_1998-en-f3cd16fb-fc37-4d52-936f-c8e9bc80f24f.html|access-date = 2015-08-18}}</ref> The declaration was a response to the [[Kosovo War]] in the late 1990s, in which the EU was perceived to have failed to intervene to stop the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Saint-Malo Declaration and its impact on ESDP after 10 years – Defence Viewpoints from UK Defence Forum|url = http://www.defenceviewpoints.co.uk/articles-and-analysis/the-saint-malo-declaration-and-its-impact-on-esdp-after-10-years|website = www.defenceviewpoints.co.uk|access-date = 2015-08-18|last = Adam}}</ref>

Following the establishment of the ESDI and the St. Malo declaration, [[United States Secretary of State|US Secretary of State]] [[Madeleine Albright]] were among others who voiced concern that an independent European security pillar could undermine NATO, as she put forth the three famous D's:
{{Cquote
|text=Our [...] task is working together to develop [the ESDI] within [NATO], which the United States has strongly endorsed. We enthusiastically support any such measures that enhance European capabilities. The United States welcomes a more capable European partner, with modern, flexible military forces capable of putting out fires in Europe's own back yard and working with us through [NATO] to defend our common interests. The key to a successful initiative is to focus on practical military capabilities. Any initiative must avoid preempting [NATO] decision-making by <u>'''d'''</u>e-linking ESDI from NATO, avoid <u>'''d'''</u>uplicating existing efforts, and avoid <u>'''d'''</u>iscriminating against non-EU members. [...]
|author=[[United States Secretary of State|US Secretary of State]] [[Madeleine Albright|Albright]] |source= [[North Atlantic Council]] (8 December 1998)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://1997-2001.state.gov/statements/1998/981208.html|title = 12/8/98 Albright Statement to the North Atlantic Council}}</ref>
}}

As a direct consequence of the Saint-Malo summit, the EU formulated a [[Helsinki Headline Goal|"Headline Goal"]] in Helsinki in 1999, setting 2003 as a target date for the creation of a European force of up to 60,000 troops, and establishing a catalogue of forces, the 'Helsinki Force Catalogue', to be able to carry out the so-called "Petersberg Tasks".
[[File:Javier Solana 1999.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Javier Solana]], who served as [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|High Representative]] between 1999 and 2009]]
The [[Treaty of Amsterdam]], which entered into force in 1999, transferred the WEU's Petersberg tasks to the EU, and stated that the EU's European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), replacing the WEU's ESDI, would be 'progressively framed' on the basis of these tasks.

In June 1999, the [[List of European Councils#Cologne 1999|Cologne European Council]] decided to incorporate the role of the WEU within the EU, effectively abandoning the WEU. The Cologne Council also appointed [[Javier Solana]] as the [[High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy]] to help progress both the [[CFSP]] and the ESDP.

In 2000 and 2001 a number of ESDP bodies were established within the [[Council of the European Union|EU Council]], including the [[Political and Security Committee]] (PSC), the [[European Union Military Committee|Military Committee]] (EUMC) and the [[European Union Military Staff|Military Staff]] (EUMS).

In 2002 the [[European Union Satellite Centre]] superseded the Western European Union Satellite Centre, and the 1996 Berlin agreement was amended with the so-called [[Berlin Plus agreement]], which allowed the EU to also draw on some of NATO's assets in its own peacekeeping operations, subject to a "[[right of first refusal]]" in that NATO must first decline to intervene in a given crisis. Additionally, an agreement was signed on information sharing between the EU and NATO, and EU liaison cells were added at NATO's [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]] (SHAPE) and [[Allied Joint Force Command Naples|Joint Force Command]] (JFC) in Naples.

In 2003 the [[Treaty of Nice]] entered into force, providing the ESDP's legal foundation in terms of competences, organisation, structures and assets. The same year the ESDP became operational through its first missions and operations, and the EU adopted its [[European Security Strategy]], outlining common threats and objectives.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=266&lang=en |title="European security strategy", SCADPLUS, September 4, 2006 |access-date=April 28, 2018 |archive-date=January 6, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106020934/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=266&lang=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> The European security strategy was for the first time drawn up in 2003 under the authority of the EU's [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]], [[Javier Solana]], and adopted by the Brussels European Council of 12 and 13 December 2003. With the emergence of the ESDP, it was the first time that Europe had formulated a joint security strategy. It could be considered a counterpart to the [[National Security Strategy of the United States]].

It became clear that the objectives of the outlined in the Helsinki Headline Goal were not achievable quickly. In May 2004, EU defence ministers approved "[[Helsinki Headline Goal|Headline Goal 2010]]", extending the timelines for the EU's projects. However, it became clear that the objectives cannot be achieved by this date too. French Foreign Minister [[Alain Juppé]] expressed his desperation: "The common security and defense policy of Europe? It is dead."<ref>Meltem Mueftueler-Bac & Damla Cihangir, "The Transatlantic Relationship and the Future Global Governance", European Integration and Transatlantic Relations, (2012), p 12, www.iai.it/pdf/Transworld/TW_WP_05.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Presidency Conclusions. Helsinki European Council 10 and 11 December 1999.|url = http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/acfa4c.htm|website = www.consilium.europa.eu|access-date = 2015-08-18|archive-date = 2016-02-06|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160206132601/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/acfa4c.htm|url-status = dead}}</ref>

In 2004 the [[European Defence Agency]] (EDA) was established to facilitate defence integration.
[[File:Nordic Battle Group ISTAR Training (5014209533).jpg|thumb|[[Irish Army]] personnel from the EU's [[Nordic Battle Group]] at an exercise in 2010: No battle group has as of yet been deployed]]
The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of [[rapid reaction force]]s composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}
In 2005 the [[EU Battlegroup]]s (BG) initiative was operational as a result of the [[Helsinki Headline Goal]] process. Each battlegroup were to quickly be able to deploy about 1,500&nbsp;personnel.<ref name="Council Capabilities">{{cite web|title=EU BATTLEGROUPS|publisher=Europa web portal|author=Council of the European Union|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/090720-Factsheet-Battlegroups_EN.pdf|date=July 2009|access-date=3 June 2013|archive-date=4 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104224245/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/090720-Factsheet-Battlegroups_EN.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since the inception of the EU's European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999 (renamed the [[Common Security and Defence Policy]], CSDP, in 2009), missions had only ad hoc operational headquarters (OHQs.) The United Kingdom, in particular, had blocked moves towards establishing a permanent EU OHQ that could duplicate or undermine the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]]'s (NATO) [[Allied Command Operations]] (ACO) – and its SHAPE headquarters in [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]], [[Belgium]].

As of 2017, CSDP missions had the following ad hoc OHQ options, from which the [[Council of the European Union|Council]] would choose:
*OHQs offered by member states, e.g. [[Northwood Headquarters]] as made available by the United Kingdom
*[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Allied Command Operations]] (ACO) of the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO), based on the [[Berlin Plus agreement]]
*[[European Union Operations Centre]] (EU OPCEN), a limited ad hoc headquarters outside the EEAS

== 2009–2015: Deeper cooperation enabled, WEU dissolved ==
{{Further|Treaty of Lisbon|Treaty of Brussels#Termination|Western European Union#2009–2011: Dissolution}}
[[File:Tratado de Lisboa 13 12 2007 (04).jpg|thumb|[[Signing of the Treaty of Lisbon|Signing]] of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] (2007)]]
Upon the entry into force of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] in 2009 the ESDP was renamed the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), a [[Alliance|mutual defence clause]] was introduced among member states and a subset of willing member states fulfilling 'higher criteria' were allowed to pursue [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]] (PESCO). The post of [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy]] also superseded the two previous posts of [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] and [[European Commissioner for External Relations]]. The treaty also led to the dissolution of the [[Western European Union]] in 2011 as, with the solidarity clause (deemed to supersede the WEU's military mutual defence clause) and the expansion of the CSDP, the WEU became redundant.

Comparison of mutual defence clauses:

[[:wikisource:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title V: General Provisions on the Union's External Action Service and Specific Provisions on the Common Foreign and Security Policy#Article 42|Article 42.7]] of the [[Treaty on European Union|consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union]]:

''"If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]"''

[[:wikisource:Modified Brussels Treaty|Article V of the Modified Treaty of Brussels]]:

''"If any of the High Contracting Parties should be the object of an armed attack in Europe, the other High Contracting Parties will, in accordance with the provisions of Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, afford the Party so attacked all the military and other aid and assistance in their power."''

[[:wikisource:North Atlantic Treaty#Article 5|Article 5]] of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]]:

''"The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]"''

== Since 2015: New political impetus, structural integration ==
{{Update section|date=July 2024}}
{{Further|Impact of Brexit on the European Union#Defence and foreign affairs|Military Planning and Conduct Capability#Creation|Permanent Structured Cooperation#Activation|Strategic Compass for Security and Defence}}
The mutual defence clause, Article 42.7, was invoked for the first time in November 2015 following the [[November 2015 Paris attacks|terrorist attacks in Paris]], which were described by French President [[François Hollande]] as an attack against Europe as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|author=Peter Spiegel in Brussels and Jim Brunsden in Paris |url=http://m.ft.com/cms/s/0/1c66a416-8c8b-11e5-a549-b89a1dfede9b.html |title=Hollande makes unusual appeal to EU collective defence article – FT.com |publisher=M.ft.com |date=2015-11-16 |access-date=2016-02-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Source: CNNAdded on 1418 GMT (2218 HKT) November 16, 2015 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2015/11/16/francois-hollande-speech-parliament-france-war-isis.cnn |title=Francois Hollande: 'France is at war' – CNN Video |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |date=2015-11-16 |access-date=2016-02-19}}</ref>

In 2016 HR/VP [[Federica Mogherini]] drew up a new security strategy, the [[European Union Global Strategy]], which along with the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russian annexation of Crimea]], the scheduled [[Brexit|British withdrawal]] from the EU and the [[2016 United States presidential election|election of Donald Trump]] as US President have given the CSDP a new impetus.

This has given rise to a number of initiatives:
*[[Permanent Structured Cooperation]] (PESCO; 2017–)
*[[Coordinated Annual Review on Defence]] (CARD; 2019-)
*[[European Defence Fund]] (EDF; 2017)
*[[Military Planning and Conduct Capability]] (MPCC; 2017)
*[[Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space]] (2019-)

The MPCC is a part of the [[European External Action Service|External Action Service]]'s [[European Union Military Staff|Military Staff]] (EUMS) that constitutes the EU's first permanent operational headquarters. The [[Director General of the European Union Military Staff|Director General]] of the EUMS also serves as Director of the MPCC – exercising command and control over the operations within the MPCC's remit.

In wake of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in February 2022, the EU gave €500M in arms and aid from its [[European Peace Facility]] to the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine|Ukrainian armed forces]]. This was the first time the EU financed the purchase and delivery of military equipment to a country under attack.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-ukraine-russia-funding-weapons-budget-military-aid/|title = EU agrees to give €500M in arms, aid to Ukrainian military in 'watershed' move|date = 27 February 2022}}</ref> On 1 June 2022, [[2022 Danish European Union opt-out referendum|Denmark held a referendum on the lifting of the country's defense opt-out on EU security policies]], that would enable Denmark to participate in the Common Security and Defense Policy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/06/01/europe/denmark-eu-defense-policy-intl/index.html|website=[[cnn.com]]|title=Russia's war on Ukraine prompts Denmark to vote on joining EU shared defense policy|date=1 June 2022}}</ref> The referendum was passed with a majority of almost a 67% of voters in favour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/1/exit-polls-danish-voters-want-back-joining-eus-defence-policy|date=1 June 2022|website=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|title=Denmark to join EU defence policy after historic vote}}</ref> In October 2022, the EU launched a [[European Union Military Assistance Mission Ukraine|military assistance mission in support of Ukraine]], which entails training Ukrainian forces on EU soil.

== Timeline ==
Abbreviations:
:BG: [[EU battlegroup|battle group]]
:CARD: [[Coordinated Annual Review on Defence]]
:CFE: [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]]
:CFSP: [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]]
:CoE: [[Council of Europe]]
:CSDP: [[Common Security and Defence Policy]]
:EATC: [[European Air Transport Command]]
:EBCG: [[European Border and Coast Guard Agency|European Border and Coast Guard]]
:EC: [[European Communities]] (i.e. EEC, ECSC and EURATOM)
:EDF: [[European Defence Fund]]
:EEC: [[European Economic Community]]
:ECSC: [[European Coal and Steel Community]]
:EDA: [[European Defence Agency]]
:EDC: [[Treaty establishing the European Defence Community|European Defence Community]]
:EEAS: [[European External Action Service]]
:EEC: [[European Economic Community]]
:EI2: [[European Intervention Initiative]]
:EPC: [[European Political Cooperation]]
:ERP: [[Marshall Plan|European Recovery Program]] (Marshall Plan)
:ESDI: [[European Security and Defence Identity]]
:EUMS: [[European Union Military Staff]]
:EUROCORPS: [[Eurocorps|European Corps]]
:EUROFOR: [[European Rapid Operational Force]]
:EUROGENDFOR: [[European Gendarmerie Force]]
:EUROMARFOR: [[European Maritime Force]]
:ESDP: [[European Security and Defence Policy]]
:EU: [[European Union]]
:EURATOM: [[European Atomic Energy Community]]
:HHG: [[Helsinki Headline Goal]]
:HR-CFSP: [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy]]
:HR/VP: [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy]]
:ISS: [[European Union Institute for Security Studies|Institute for Security Studies]]
:MC: [[European Union Military Committee|Military Committee]]
:MPCC: [[Military Planning and Conduct Capability]]
:NATO: [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]
:OCCAR: [[Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation]]
:PESCO: [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]]
:SatCen: [[European Union Satellite Centre|Satellite Centre]]
:UK: [[United Kingdom]]
:WEAG: [[Western European Armaments Group]]
:WEAO: [[Western European Armaments Organization]]
:WEU: [[Western European Union]]
:WU: [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]]

<timeline>
ImageSize  = width:950 height:1000
PlotArea   = left:50 right:0 bottom:10 top:10
DateFormat = yyyy
Period     = from:1945 till:2025
TimeAxis   = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1945
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1945

PlotData=
  Color:yellow mark:(line,black) align:left fontsize:M
  shift:(0,-3) # shift text to right side of bar

  # there is no automatic collision detection, fontsize:XS
  # so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap shift:(25,-10)

  at:1945 shift:15,-6 text: World War II ends
  at:1946 shift:15,-6 text: Churchill’s speech at the University of Zurich calling for a United States of Europe
  at:1947 shift:15,-6 text: Franco-British alliance established, ERP launched
  at:1948 shift:15,-6 text: WU established, Czechoslovak coup d'état, Berlin Blockade starts
  at:1949 shift:15,-6 text: North Atlantic Treaty signed
  at:1950 shift:15,-6 text: Schuman Declaration proposes the ECSC, Korean War breaks out
  at:1951 shift:15,-6 text: NATO absorbs WU Defence Organisation
  at:1952 shift:15,-6 text: ECSC established
  at:1954 shift:15,-6 text: EDC rejected
  at:1955 shift:15,-6 text: Dormant WEU replaces WU. Warsaw Pact established. Referendum on establishing Saarland under the auspices of WEU fails to pass
  at:1956 shift:15,-6 text: Suez Canal Crisis
  at:1958 shift:15,-6 text: EEC and EURATOM established
  at:1960 shift:15,-6 text: WEU's social and cultural tasks transferred to CoE
  at:1961 shift:15,-6 text: Berlin Wall constructed
  at:1967 shift:15,-6 text: Common institutions established for EC
  at:1969 shift:15,-6 text: Davignon Report proposes EPC
  at:1973 shift:15,-6 text: Copenhagen report adopted on EPC.
  at:1970 shift:15,-6 text: EPC established. Luxembourg report adopted on EPC.
  at:1975 shift:15,-6 text: Helsinki Accords adopted
  at:1981 shift:15,-6 text: London report adopted on EPC.
  at:1984 shift:15,-6 text: Rome Declaration reactivates WEU
  at:1985 shift:15,-6 text: Schengen Agreement signed
  at:1986 shift:15,-6 text: Single European Act codifies EPC
  at:1987 shift:15,-6 text: WEU deploys first mission, adopts Platform on European Security Interests calling for European defence integration
  at:1989 shift:15,-6 text: Berlin Wall falls, WEU establishes ISS
  at:1990 shift:15,-6 text: CFE signed
  at:1991 shift:15,-6 text: Yugoslav Wars break out
  at:1992 shift:15,-6 text: WEU adopts the Petersberg tasks and establishes SatCen as well as WEAG
  at:1993 shift:15,-6 text: EU, CFSP, EUROCORPS established. Denmark obtains opt-out from future EU defence policy. WEU Planning Cell operational.
  at:1995 shift:15,-6 text: Schengen Agreement comes into force. EUROFOR and EUROMARFOR est. WEU conducts first crisis management exercise, CRISEX 95-96.
  at:1996 shift:15,-6 text: Situation Centre operational, WEAO established and ESDI introduced within the WEU. OCCAR established.
  at:1997 shift:15,-6 text: WEU agrees establishment of MC.
  at:1998 shift:15,-6 text: St. Malo declaration supports EU defence integration
  at:1999 shift:15,-6 text: EU's ESDP replaces WEU's, HR-CFSP introduced
  at:2000 shift:15,-6 text: EU's MC established
  at:2001 shift:15,-6 text: Terrorist attack on the United States followed by War on Terror
  at:2002 shift:15,-6 text: Berlin Plus agreement lets EU draw on NATO assets, WEU's SatCen and ISS transferred to EU
  at:2003 shift:15,-6 text: Security Strategy and HHG adopted, first EU missions deployed, Iraq War breaks out and divides EU
  at:2004 shift:15,-6 text: EDA established based on previous WEAO and WEAG. EUMS established. Headline Goal 2010 and Civilian Headline Goal 2008 adopted.
  at:2005 shift:15,-6 text: EU BGs operational
  at:2006 shift:15,-6 text: EUROGENDFOR est.
  at:2007 shift:15,-6 text: Civilian Headline Goal 2010 adopted
  at:2009 shift:15,-6 text: EU gains mutual defence clause, PESCO enabled, HR/VP replaces HR-CFSP
  at:2010 shift:15,-6 text: EEAS and EATC established
  at:2011 shift:15,-6 text: WEU dissolved as EU had taken over its functions
  at:2012 shift:15,-6 text: EUROFOR disbanded
  at:2014 shift:15,-6 text: Russia annexes Crimea from Ukraine
  at:2015 shift:15,-6 text: France invokes EU mutual defence clause over terrorist attack, EU negotiates Iran nuclear deal
  at:2016 shift:15,-6 text: EU adopts Global Strategy, creates EBCG. Majority of UK public votes for EU withdrawal.
  at:2017 shift:15,-6 text: PESCO initiated, MPCC established within EUMS for non-executive missions
  at:2018 shift:15,-6 text: EI2 established
  at:2019 shift:15,-6 text: UK withdraws from EU, CARD implemented
  at:2020 shift:15,-6 text: Extension of MPCC's mandate to include executive missions
  at:2021 shift:15,-6 text: EDF established
  at:2022 shift:15,-6 text: Russia invades Ukraine, EU trains and equips Ukrainian forces. Sweden and Finland apply for NATO membership. Denmark scraps opt-out.
</timeline>

== See also ==
{{Portal|European Union}}
*[[List of military and civilian missions of the European Union]]
*[[Common Foreign and Security Policy#History|History of the Common Foreign and Security Policy]]
*[[History of the European Union]]
*[[Military history of Europe]]
*[[History of NATO|History of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization]]

'''Major CSDP offices:'''
*[[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy#EurActiv|List of High Representatives]]
*[[Chairman of the European Union Military Committee#List of holders|List of Chairmen of the European Union Military Committee]]
*[[Director General of the European Union Military Staff#List of holders|List of Directors General of the European Union Military Staff]]

'''History of military precursors of the European Union:'''
*[[Western European Union#History|History of the Western European Union]]
*[[Western Union (alliance)#History|History of the Western Union]]

'''Other:'''
*[[Scandinavian defence union]] (proposed in the post-war period)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/5388/shaping-common-security-and-defence-policy_en ''Shaping of a Common Security and Defence Policy''], [[European External Action Service]]
*[http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/defence-security/defence-security-timeline/ ''Timeline: EU cooperation on security and defence''], [[Council of the European Union]]
*[https://www.cvce.eu/en/education/unit-content/-/unit/803b2430-7d1c-4e7b-9101-47415702fc8e ''The organisation of post-war defence in Europe (1948–1954)''], [[Virtual Centre for Knowledge on Europe]]
*[https://www.eda.europa.eu/Aboutus/our-history/inception ''History of European defence integration''], [[European Defence Agency]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20171113155653/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-eu-defence-chronology/chronology-europes-long-road-in-search-of-a-common-defence-idUKKBN1DD1IY ''Chronology – Europe's long road in search of a common defence''], [[Reuters]]
*[https://www.cvce.eu/en/recherche/unit-content/-/unit/72d9869d-ff72-493e-a0e3-bedb3e671faa/578edfb4-179a-486e-a75a-a1347ee1167c ''Origins and development of the Western European Union''], [[Virtual Centre for Knowledge on Europe]]

{{Common Security and Defence Policy/history}}
{{Military history of Europe}}

[[Category:Military history of the European Union| ]]