German Empire

German Empire
*Deutsches Reich* (German)
German Empire Deutsches Reich (German)
1871–1918
	Flag Coat of arms; (1889–1918)
	Motto: Gott mit uns (German); Nobiscum Deus (Latin); ("God with us")
	Anthem: Heil dir im Siegerkranz; ("Hail to Thee in the Victor's Crown"); File:Heil Dir Im Siegerkranz (old recording).ogg Die Wacht am Rhein (unofficial); ("The Watch on the Rhine"); Die Wacht am Rhein (instrumental)
	The German colonial empire in 1914
Capital and largest city	Berlin; 52°31′7″N 13°22′34″E / 52.51861°N 13.37611°E
Official languages	German
Common languages	List Unofficial:; Low German, Polish, Danish, Yiddish, Limburgish, Frisian, Sorbian, Sinte Romani, Lithuanian, Kashubian, Swahili, Arabic;
Religion (1880)	Majority:; 62.63% Protestant; (United Protestant, Lutheran, Reformed); Minorities:; 35.89% Roman Catholic; 1.24% Jewish; 0.17% other Christian; 0.07% other
Demonym(s)	German
Government	Federal parliamentary semi-constitutional monarchy Under a military dictatorship; (1916–1918);
Emperor
• 1871–1888	Wilhelm I
• 1888	Friedrich III
• 1888–1918	Wilhelm II
Chancellor
• 1871–1890	Otto von Bismarck
• 1890–1894	Leo von Caprivi
• 1894–1900	C. zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
• 1900–1909	Bernhard von Bülow
• 1909–1917	T. von Bethmann Hollweg
• 1917	Georg Michaelis
• 1917–1918	Georg von Hertling
• 1918	Max von Baden
Legislature	Bicameral
• Upper house	Bundesrat
• Lower house	Reichstag
Historical era	New Imperialism • World War I
• Unification	18 January 1871
• Constitution	16 April 1871
• Berlin Conference	15 November 1884
• WWI began	28 July 1914
• German Revolution	3 November 1918
• Abdication of Kaiser	9 November 1918
• Armistice	11 November 1918
• Weimar Constitution	11 August 1919
Area
• Total	1,750,000 km2 (680,000 sq mi)
1910	540,857.54 km2 (208,826.26 sq mi)
Population
• Estimate	70,000,000
• 1871	41,058,792
• 1900	56,367,178
• 1910	64,925,993
Currency	Until 1873: Vereinsthaler, South German gulden, Bremen thaler, Hamburg mark, French francGerman gold mark; (1873–1914); German Papiermark; (1914–1918)
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	North German Confederation
	Bavaria
	Württemberg
	Baden
	Hesse
Weimar Republic
Memel Territory
Territory of the Saar Basin
Danzig
	Area and population not including colonial possessions

The German Empire (‹See Tfd›German: Deutsches Reich),^[a]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18] also referred to as Imperial Germany,^[19] the Second Reich^[b]^[20] or simply Germany, was the period of the German Reich^[21]^[22] from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the November Revolution in 1918, when the German Reich changed its form of government from a monarchy to a republic.^[23]^[24]

The empire was founded on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris, France, where the south German states, except for Austria and Liechtenstein, joined the North German Confederation and the new constitution came into force on 16 April, changing the name of the federal state to the German Empire and introducing the title of German Emperor for Wilhelm I, King of Prussia from the House of Hohenzollern.^[25] Berlin remained its capital, and Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia, became chancellor, the head of government. As these events occurred, the Prussian-led North German Confederation and its southern German allies, such as Baden, Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hesse, were still engaged in the Franco-Prussian War. The German Empire consisted of 25 states, each with its own nobility, four constituent kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies (six before 1876), seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. While Prussia was one of four kingdoms in the realm, it contained about two-thirds of the Empire's population and territory, and Prussian dominance was also constitutionally established, since the King of Prussia was also the German Emperor (Deutscher Kaiser).

After 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals, and railways. In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million. A heavily rural collection of states in 1815, the now united Germany became predominantly urban.^[26] The success of German industrialization manifested itself in two ways in the early 20th century; German factories were often larger and more modern than many of their British and French counterparts, but the preindustrial sector was more backward.^[27] The success of the German Empire in the natural sciences, especially in physics and chemistry, was such that one-third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire became an industrial, technological, and scientific power in Europe, and by 1913, Germany was the largest economy in continental Europe and the third-largest in the world.^[28] Germany also became a great power, building the longest railway network of Europe, the world's strongest army,^[29] and a fast-growing industrial base.^[30] Starting very small in 1871, in a decade, the navy became second only to Britain's Royal Navy.

From 1871 to 1890, Otto von Bismarck's tenure as the first and to this day longest-serving chancellor was marked by relative liberalism at its start, but in time grew more conservative. Broad reforms, the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf and systematic repression of Polish people marked his period in the office. Despite his hatred of liberalism and socialism – he called liberals and socialists "enemies of the Reich" – social programs introduced by Bismarck included old-age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance, all aspects of the modern European welfare state.

Late in Bismarck's chancellorship and in spite of his earlier personal opposition, Germany became involved in colonialism. Claiming much of the leftover territory that was not yet conquered by Europeans in the Scramble for Africa, it managed to build the third-largest colonial empire at the time, after the British and the French ones.^[31] As a colonial state, it sometimes clashed with the interests of other European powers, especially the British Empire. During its colonial expansion, the German Empire committed the Herero and Namaqua genocide.^[32]

After the resignation of Otto von Bismarck in 1890, and Wilhelm II's refusal to recall him to office, the empire embarked on Weltpolitik ("world politics") – a bellicose new course that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Bismarck's successors were incapable of maintaining their predecessor's complex, shifting, and overlapping alliances which had kept Germany from being diplomatically isolated. This period was marked by increased oppression of Polish people and various factors influencing the Emperor's decisions, which were often perceived as contradictory or unpredictable by the public. In 1879, the German Empire consolidated the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary, followed by the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882. It also retained strong diplomatic ties to the Ottoman Empire. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, Italy left the alliance and the Ottoman Empire formally allied with Germany.

In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in the autumn of 1914 failed, and the war on the Western Front became a stalemate. The Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food and supplements. However, Imperial Germany had success on the Eastern Front; it occupied a large amount of territory to its east following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 contributed to bringing the United States into the war. In October 1918, after the failed Spring Offensive, the German armies were in retreat, allies Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, and Bulgaria had surrendered. The empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution with the abdication of Wilhelm II, which left the post-war federal republic to govern a devastated populace. The Treaty of Versailles imposed post-war reparation costs of 132 billion gold marks (around US$269 billion or €240 billion in 2019, or roughly US$32 billion in 1921),^[33] as well as limiting the army to 100,000 men and disallowing conscription, armored vehicles, submarines, aircraft, and more than six battleships.^[34] The consequential economic devastation, later exacerbated by the Great Depression, as well as humiliation and outrage experienced by the German population are considered leading factors in the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism.^[35]

History

Background

The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris.^[36]

The liberal Revolutions of 1848 were crushed after the relations between the educated, well-off middle-class liberals and the urban artisans broke down; Otto von Bismarck's pragmatic Realpolitik, which appealed to peasants as well as the aristocracy, took its place.^[37] Bismarck sought to extend Hohenzollern hegemony throughout the German states; to do so meant unification of the German states and the exclusion of Prussia's main German rival, Austria, from the subsequent German Empire. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871 sparked a growing pan-German ideal and contributed to the formation of the German state.

The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and Prussia and its allies on the other. The war resulted in the partial replacement of the Confederation in 1867 by a North German Confederation, comprising the 22 states north of the river Main. The patriotic fervor generated by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 overwhelmed the remaining opposition to a unified Germany (aside from Austria) in the four states south of the Main, and during November 1870, they joined the North German Confederation by treaty.^[38]

Foundation

On 10 December 1870, the North German Confederation Reichstag renamed the Confederation the "German Empire" and gave the title of German Emperor to William I, the King of Prussia, as Bundespräsidium of the Confederation.^[39] The new constitution (Constitution of the German Confederation) and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William was proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.^[40]

The second German Constitution, adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April,^[40] was substantially based upon Bismarck's North German Constitution. The political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage. However, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas. As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly over-represented.

The legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the 27 states. Executive power was vested in the emperor, or Kaiser, who was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. The emperor was given extensive powers by the constitution. He alone appointed and dismissed the chancellor (so in practice, the emperor ruled the empire through the chancellor), was supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and final arbiter of all foreign affairs, and could also disband the Reichstag to call for new elections. Officially, the chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (top bureaucratic officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) functioned much like ministers in other monarchies. The Reichstag had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills and to initiate legislation. However, as mentioned above, in practice, the real power was vested in the emperor, who exercised it through his chancellor.

Although nominally a federal empire and league of equals, in practice, the empire was dominated by the largest and most powerful state, Prussia. It stretched across the northern two-thirds of the new Reich and contained three-fifths of the country's population. The imperial crown was hereditary in the ruling house of Prussia, the House of Hohenzollern. With the exception of 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia. With 17 out of 58 votes in the Bundesrat, Berlin needed only a few votes from the smaller states to exercise effective control.

The other states retained their own governments but had only limited aspects of sovereignty. For example, both postage stamps and currency were issued for the empire as a whole. Coins through one mark were also minted in the name of the empire, while higher-valued pieces were issued by the states. However, these larger gold and silver issues were virtually commemorative coins and had limited circulation.

While the states issued their own decorations and some had their own armies, the military forces of the smaller ones were put under Prussian control. Those of the larger states, such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony, were coordinated along Prussian principles and would, in wartime, be controlled by the federal government.

The evolution of the German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy, which became a united nation-state a decade earlier. Some key elements of the German Empire's authoritarian political structure were also the basis for conservative modernization in Imperial Japan under Emperor Meiji and the preservation of an authoritarian political structure under the tsars in the Russian Empire.

One factor in the social anatomy of these governments was the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, resulting from the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.

Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire had some democratic features. Besides universal manhood suffrage, it permitted the development of political parties. Bismarck intended to create a constitutional façade that would mask the continuation of authoritarian policies. However, in the process, he created a system with a serious flaw. There was a significant disparity between the Prussian and German electoral systems. Prussia used a three-class voting system which weighted votes based on the amount of taxes paid,^[41] all but assuring a conservative majority. The king and (with two exceptions) the prime minister of Prussia were also the emperor and chancellor of the empire – meaning that the same rulers had to seek majorities from legislatures elected from completely different franchises. Universal suffrage was significantly diluted by gross over-representation of rural areas from the 1890s onward. By the turn of the century, the urban-rural population balance was completely reversed from 1871; more than two-thirds of the empire's people lived in cities and towns.

Bismarck era

Bismarck's domestic policies played an important role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the Kaiserreich. Less preoccupied with continental power politics following unification in 1871, Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time.

Bismarck's "revolutionary conservatism" was a conservative state-building strategy designed to make ordinary Germans—not just the Junker elite—more loyal to the throne and empire. According to Kees van Kersbergen and Barbara Vis, his strategy was:

granting social rights to enhance the integration of a hierarchical society, to forge a bond between workers and the state so as to strengthen the latter, to maintain traditional relations of authority between social and status groups, and to provide a countervailing power against the modernist forces of liberalism and socialism.^[42]

Bismarck created the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s and enacted universal male suffrage in 1871.^[43] He became a great hero to German conservatives, who erected many monuments to his memory and tried to emulate his policies.^[44]

Foreign policy

A postage stamp from the Caroline Islands

Bismarck's post-1871 foreign policy was conservative and sought to preserve the balance of power in Europe. British historian Eric Hobsbawm concludes that he "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [devoting] himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers".^[45] This was a departure from his adventurous foreign policy for Prussia, where he favored strength and expansion, punctuating this by saying, "The great questions of the age are not settled by speeches and majority votes – this was the error of 1848–49 – but by iron and blood."^[46]

Bismarck's chief concern was that France would plot revenge after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. As the French lacked the strength to defeat Germany by themselves, they sought an alliance with Russia, or perhaps even the newly reformed empire of Austria-Hungary, which would envelope Germany completely. Bismarck wanted to prevent this at all costs and maintain friendly relations with the Austrians and the Russians, signing the Dual Alliance (1879) with Austria-Hungary in 1879. The Dual Aliance was a defensive alliance that was established against Russia, and by association France, in the event alliance did not work out with the state. However, an alliance with Russia would come not long after the signing of the Dual Alliance with Austria, the Dreikaiserbund (League of Three Emperors), in 1881. During this period, individuals within the German military were advocating a preemptive strike against Russia, but Bismarck knew that such ideas were foolhardy. He once wrote that "the most brilliant victories would not avail against the Russian nation, because of its climate, its desert, and its frugality, and having but one frontier to defend", and because it would leave Germany with another bitter, resentful neighbor. Despite this, another alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy would be signed in 1882, preying on the fears of the German and Austro-Hungarian militaries of the untrustworthiness of Russia itself. This alliance, named the Triple Alliance (1882), would exist up until 1915, when Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Despite Germany, and especially Austria's, lack of faith in the Russian alliance, the Reinsurance Treaty would be first signed in 1887, and renewed up until 1890, when the Bismarckian system collapsed upon Bismarck's resignation.

Meanwhile, the chancellor remained wary of any foreign policy developments that looked even remotely warlike. In 1886, he moved to stop an attempted sale of horses to France because they might be used for cavalry and also ordered an investigation into large Russian purchases of medicine from a German chemical works. Bismarck stubbornly refused to listen to Georg Herbert Münster, ambassador to France, who reported back that the French were not seeking a revanchist war and were desperate for peace at all costs.

Bismarck and most of his contemporaries were conservative-minded and focused their foreign policy attention on Germany's neighboring states. In 1914, 60% of German foreign investment was in Europe, as opposed to just 5% of British investment. Most of the money went to developing nations such as Russia that lacked the capital or technical knowledge to industrialize on their own. The construction of the Berlin–Baghdad railway, financed by German banks, was designed to eventually connect Germany with the Ottoman Empire and the Persian Gulf, but it also collided with British and Russian geopolitical interests. Conflict over the Baghdad Railway was resolved in June 1914.

Many consider Bismarck's foreign policy as a coherent system and partly responsible for the preservation of Europe's stability.^[47] It was also marked by the need to balance circumspect defensiveness and the desire to be free from the constraints of its position as a major European power.^[47] Bismarck's successors did not pursue his foreign policy legacy. For instance, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who dismissed the chancellor in 1890, let the treaty with Russia lapse in favor of Germany's alliance with Austria, which finally led to a stronger coalition-building between Russia and France.^[48]

Colonies

The German colonial empire and its protectorates in 1914

Germans had dreamed of colonial imperialism since 1848.^[49] Although Bismarck had little interest in acquiring overseas possessions, most Germans were enthusiastic, and by 1884 he had acquired German New Guinea.^[50] By the 1890s, German colonial expansion in Asia and the Pacific (Jiaozhou Bay and Tianjin in China, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the UK, Russia, Japan, and the US. The largest colonial enterprises were in Africa,^[51] where the Herero Wars in what is now Namibia in 1906–1907 resulted in the Herero and Namaqua genocide.^[52]

Economy

By 1900, Germany became the largest economy in continental Europe and the third-largest in the world behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals. Throughout its existence, it experienced economic growth and modernization led by heavy industry. In 1871, it had a largely rural population of 41 million, while by 1913, this had increased to a predominantly urban population of 68 million.^[53]

Industrial power

For 30 years, Germany struggled against Britain to be Europe's leading industrial power. Representative of Germany's industry was the steel giant Krupp, whose first factory was built in Essen. By 1902, the factory alone became "A great city with its own streets, its own police force, fire department and traffic laws. There are 150 kilometers of rail, 60 different factory buildings, 8,500 machine tools, seven electrical stations, 140 kilometers of underground cable, and 46 overhead."^[54]

Under Bismarck, Germany was a world innovator in building the welfare state. German workers enjoyed health, accident and maternity benefits, canteens, changing rooms, and a national pension scheme.^[55]

Industrialisation progressed dynamically in Germany, and German manufacturers began to capture domestic markets from British imports, and also to compete with British industry abroad, particularly in the U.S. The German textile and metal industries had by 1870 surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and superseded British manufacturers in the domestic market. Germany became the dominant economic power on the continent and was the second-largest exporting nation after Britain.^[56]

Technological progress during German industrialisation occurred in four waves: the railway wave (1877–1886), the dye wave (1887–1896), the chemical wave (1897–1902), and the wave of electrical engineering (1903–1918).^[57] Since Germany industrialised later than Britain, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily than the British in research, especially in chemistry, ICE engines and electricity. Germany's dominance in physics and chemistry was such that one-third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. The German cartel system (known as Konzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.^[58]

Germany overtook British steel production in 1893 and pig iron production in 1903. The German steel and pig iron production continued its rapid expansion: Between 1911 and 1913, the German steel and pig iron output reached one quarter of total global production.^[59]

German factories were larger and more modern than their British and French counterparts.^[27] By 1913, the German electricity production was higher than the combined electricity production of Britain, France, Italy and Sweden.^[60]

By 1900, the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes.^[61] The three major firms BASF,^[62] Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. Imperial Germany built up the world's largest chemical industry, the production of German chemical industry was 60% higher than that of the United States.^[60] In 1913, these eight firms produced almost 90% of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80% of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals and electrochemicals. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers; leading Chandler to call the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".^[63] There were many spinoffs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.^[64]

By the start of World War I (1914–1918), German industry switched to war production. The heaviest demands were on coal and steel for artillery and shell production, and on chemicals for the synthesis of materials that were subject to import restrictions and for chemical weapons and war supplies.

Railways

Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centers of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and forged ahead of France.^[65] The total length of German railroad tracks expanded from 21,000 km (13,000 mi) in 1871 to 63,000 km (39,000 mi) by 1913, establishing the largest rail network in the world after the United States.^[66] The German rail network was followed by Austria-Hungary (43,280 km; 26,890 mi), France (40,770 km; 25,330 mi), the United Kingdom (32,623 km; 20,271 mi), Italy (18,873 km; 11,727 mi) and Spain (15,088 km; 9,375 mi).^[67]

Consolidation

The creation of the Empire under Prussian leadership was a victory for the concept of Kleindeutschland (Smaller Germany) over the Großdeutschland concept. This meant that Austria-Hungary, a multi-ethnic Empire with a considerable German-speaking population, would remain outside of the German nation state. Bismarck's policy was to pursue a solution diplomatically.^{[citation needed]} The effective alliance between Germany and Austria played a major role in Germany's decision to enter World War I in 1914.^{[citation needed]}

Bismarck announced there would be no more territorial additions to Germany in Europe, and his diplomacy after 1871 was focused on stabilizing the European system and preventing any wars. He succeeded, and only after his departure from office in 1890 did the diplomatic tensions start rising again.^[68]

Social issues

After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity. He opposed Catholic civil rights and emancipation, especially the influence of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX, and working-class radicalism, represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party.

Kulturkampf

Prussia in 1871 included 16,000,000 Protestants, both Reformed and Lutheran, and 8,000,000 Catholics. Most people were generally segregated into their own religious worlds, living in rural districts or city neighbourhoods that were overwhelmingly of the same religion, and sending their children to separate public schools where their religion was taught. There was little interaction or intermarriage. On the whole, the Protestants had a higher social status, and the Catholics were more likely to be peasant farmers or unskilled or semiskilled industrial workers. In 1870, the Catholics formed their own political party, the Centre Party, which generally supported unification and most of Bismarck's policies. However, Bismarck distrusted parliamentary democracy in general and opposition parties in particular, especially when the Centre Party showed signs of gaining support among dissident elements such as the Polish Catholics in Silesia. A powerful intellectual force of the time was anti-Catholicism, led by the liberal intellectuals who formed a vital part of Bismarck's coalition. They saw the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity, especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870, and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops.^[69]

The Kulturkampf launched by Bismarck 1871–1880 affected Prussia; although there were similar movements in Baden and Hesse, the rest of Germany was not affected. According to the new imperial constitution, the states were in charge of religious and educational affairs; they funded the Protestant and Catholic schools. In July 1871 Bismarck abolished the Catholic section of the Prussian Ministry of ecclesiastical and educational affairs, depriving Catholics of their voice at the highest level. The system of strict government supervision of schools was applied only in Catholic areas; the Protestant schools were left alone.^[70]

Much more serious were the May laws of 1873. One made the appointment of any priest dependent on his attendance at a German university, as opposed to the seminaries that the Catholics typically used. Furthermore, all candidates for the ministry had to pass an examination in German culture before a state board which weeded out intransigent Catholics. Another provision gave the government a veto power over most church activities. A second law abolished the jurisdiction of the Vatican over the Catholic Church in Prussia; its authority was transferred to a government body controlled by Protestants.^[71]

Nearly all German bishops, clergy, and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws, and were defiant in the face of heavier and heavier penalties and imprisonments imposed by Bismarck's government. By 1876, all the Prussian bishops were imprisoned or in exile, and a third of the Catholic parishes were without a priest. In the face of systematic defiance, the Bismarck government increased the penalties and its attacks, and were challenged in 1875 when a papal encyclical declared the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia was invalid, and threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who obeyed. There was no violence, but the Catholics mobilized their support, set up numerous civic organizations, raised money to pay fines, and rallied behind their church and the Centre Party. The "Old Catholic Church", which rejected the First Vatican Council, attracted only a few thousand members. Bismarck, a devout pietistic Protestant, realized his Kulturkampf was backfiring when secular and socialist elements used the opportunity to attack all religion. In the long run, the most significant result was the mobilization of the Catholic voters, and their insistence on protecting their religious identity. In the elections of 1874, the Centre party doubled its popular vote, and became the second-largest party in the national parliament—and remained a powerful force for the next 60 years, so that after Bismarck it became difficult to form a government without their support.^[72]^[73]

Social reform

Bismarck built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s. In the 1880s he introduced old-age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. He came to realize that this sort of policy was very appealing, since it bound workers to the state, and also fit in very well with his authoritarian nature. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today.

Bismarck's paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.^[55]^[74] Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers by his high tariff policies, which protected profits and wages from American competition, although they alienated the liberal intellectuals who wanted free trade.^[75]

Antisemitism

As it was throughout Europe at the time, antisemitism was endemic in Germany during the period. Before Napoleon's decrees ended the ghettos in Confederation of the Rhine, it had been religiously motivated, but by the 19th century, it was a factor in German nationalism. In the popular mind, Jews became a symbol of capitalism and wealth. On the other hand, the constitution and legal system protected the rights of Jews as German citizens. Antisemitic parties were formed but soon collapsed.^[76] But after the Treaty of Versailles, and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, antisemitism in Germany would increase.^[77]

Germanisation

One of the effects of the unification policies was the gradually increasing tendency to eliminate the use of non-German languages in public life, schools and academic settings with the intent of pressuring the non-German population to abandon their national identity in what was called "Germanisation". These policies often had the reverse effect of stimulating resistance, usually in the form of homeschooling and tighter unity in the minority groups, especially the Poles.^[78]

The Germanisation policies were targeted particularly against the significant Polish minority of the empire, gained by Prussia in the partitions of Poland. Poles were treated as an ethnic minority even where they made up the majority, as in the Province of Posen, where a series of anti-Polish measures was enforced.^[79] Numerous anti-Polish laws had no great effect especially in the province of Posen where the German-speaking population dropped from 42.8% in 1871 to 38.1% in 1905, despite all efforts.^[80]

Law

Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with legislation. The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise.

In 1871, a common criminal code [de] was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system by the courts constitution act [de], code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung) and code of criminal procedure (Strafprozessordnung^[de]). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (If they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works in the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900. All of these codifications are, albeit with many amendments, still in effect today.

Different legal systems in Germany prior to 1900
Fields of law in the German Empire

Year of the three emperors

On 9 March 1888, Wilhelm I died shortly before his 91st birthday, leaving his son Frederick as the new emperor. Frederick was a liberal and an admirer of the British constitution,^[81] while his links to Britain strengthened further with his marriage to Princess Victoria, eldest child of Queen Victoria. With his ascent to the throne, many hoped that Frederick's reign would lead to a liberalization of the Reich and an increase of parliament's influence on the political process. The dismissal of Robert von Puttkamer, the highly conservative Prussian interior minister, on 8 June was a sign of the expected direction and a blow to Bismarck's administration.

By the time of his accession, however, Frederick had developed incurable laryngeal cancer, which had been diagnosed in 1887. He died on the 99th day of his rule, on 15 June 1888. His son Wilhelm became emperor.

Wilhelmine era

Bismarck's resignation

Wilhelm II wanted to reassert his ruling prerogatives at a time when other monarchs in Europe were being transformed into constitutional figureheads. This decision led the ambitious Kaiser into conflict with Bismarck. The old chancellor had hoped to guide Wilhelm as he had guided his grandfather, but the emperor wanted to be the master in his own house and had many sycophants telling him that Frederick the Great would not have been great with a Bismarck at his side.^[82] A key difference between Wilhelm II and Bismarck was their approaches to handling political crises, especially in 1889, when German coal miners went on strike in Upper Silesia. Bismarck demanded that the German Army be sent in to crush the strike, but Wilhelm II rejected this authoritarian measure, responding "I do not wish to stain my reign with the blood of my subjects."^[83] Instead of condoning repression, Wilhelm had the government negotiate with a delegation from the coal miners, which brought the strike to an end without violence.^[82] The fractious relationship ended in March 1890, after Wilhelm II and Bismarck quarrelled, and the chancellor resigned days later.^[82]

With Bismarck's departure, Wilhelm II became the dominant ruler of Germany. Unlike his grandfather, Wilhelm I, who had been largely content to leave government affairs to the chancellor, Wilhelm II wanted to be fully informed and actively involved in running Germany, not an ornamental figurehead, although most Germans found his claims of divine right to rule amusing.^[84] Wilhelm allowed politician Walther Rathenau to tutor him in European economics and industrial and financial realities in Europe.^[84]

As Hull (2004) notes, Bismarckian foreign policy "was too sedate for the reckless Kaiser".^[85] Wilhelm became internationally notorious for his aggressive stance on foreign policy and his strategic blunders (such as the Tangier Crisis), which pushed the German Empire into growing political isolation and eventually helped to cause World War I.

Domestic affairs

The *Reichstag* in the 1890s / early 1900s

Under Wilhelm II, Germany no longer had long-ruling strong chancellors like Bismarck. The new chancellors had difficulty in performing their roles, especially the additional role as Prime Minister of Prussia assigned to them in the German Constitution. The reforms of Chancellor Leo von Caprivi, which liberalized trade and so reduced unemployment, were supported by the Kaiser and most Germans except for Prussian landowners, who feared loss of land and power and launched several campaigns against the reforms.^[86]

While Prussian aristocrats challenged the demands of a united German state, in the 1890s several organizations were set up to challenge the authoritarian conservative Prussian militarism which was being imposed on the country. Educators opposed to the German state-run schools, which emphasized military education, set up their own independent liberal schools, which encouraged individuality and freedom.^[87] However nearly all the schools in Imperial Germany had a very high standard and kept abreast with modern developments in knowledge.^[88]

Artists began experimental art in opposition to Kaiser Wilhelm's support for traditional art, to which Wilhelm responded "art which transgresses the laws and limits laid down by me can no longer be called art".^[89] It was largely thanks to Wilhelm's influence that most printed material in Germany used blackletter instead of the Roman type used in the rest of Western Europe. At the same time, a new generation of cultural creators emerged.^[90]

From the 1890s onwards, the most effective opposition to the monarchy came from the newly formed Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), whose radicals advocated Marxism. The threat of the SPD to the German monarchy and industrialists caused the state both to crack down on the party's supporters and to implement its own programme of social reform to soothe discontent. Germany's large industries provided significant social welfare programmes and good care to their employees, as long as they were not identified as socialists or trade-union members. The larger industrial firms provided pensions, sickness benefits and even housing to their employees.^[87]

Having learned from the failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf, Wilhelm II maintained good relations with the Roman Catholic Church and concentrated on opposing socialism.^[91] This policy failed when the Social Democrats won a third of the votes in the 1912 elections to the Reichstag, and became the largest political party in Germany. The government remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clerics and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour. The rising militarism under Wilhelm II caused many Germans to emigrate to the U.S. and the British colonies to escape mandatory military service.

During World War I, the Kaiser increasingly devolved his powers to the leaders of the German High Command, particularly future German president, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff. Hindenburg took over the role of commander–in–chief from the Kaiser, while Ludendorff became de facto general chief of staff. By 1916, Germany was effectively a military dictatorship run by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, with the Kaiser reduced to a mere figurehead.^[92]

Foreign affairs

Colonialism

Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her "place in the sun", like Britain, which he constantly wished to emulate or rival.^[93] With German traders and merchants already active worldwide, he encouraged colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific ("new imperialism"), causing the German Empire to vie with other European powers for remaining "unclaimed" territories. With the encouragement or at least the acquiescence of Britain, which at this stage saw Germany as a counterweight to her old rival France, Germany acquired German Southwest Africa (modern Namibia), German Kamerun (modern Cameroon), Togoland (modern Togo) and German East Africa (modern Rwanda, Burundi, and the mainland part of current Tanzania). Islands were gained in the Pacific through purchase and treaties and also a 99-year lease for the territory of Jiaozhou in northeast China. But of these German colonies only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable; all the others required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure, school systems, hospitals and other institutions.

Bismarck had originally dismissed the agitation for colonies with contempt; he favoured a Eurocentric foreign policy, as the treaty arrangements made during his tenure in office show. As a latecomer to colonization, Germany repeatedly came into conflict with the established colonial powers and also with the United States, which opposed German attempts at colonial expansion in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. Native insurrections in German territories received prominent coverage in other countries, especially in Britain; the established powers had dealt with such uprisings decades earlier, often brutally, and had secured firm control of their colonies by then. The Boxer Rising in China, which the Chinese government eventually sponsored, began in the Shandong province, in part because Germany, as colonizer at Jiaozhou, was an untested power and had only been active there for two years. Seven western nations, including the United States, and Japan mounted a joint relief force to rescue westerners caught up in the rebellion. During the departure ceremonies for the German contingent, Wilhelm II urged them to behave like the Hun invaders of continental Europe – an unfortunate remark that would later be resurrected by British propagandists to paint Germans as barbarians during World War I and World War II^{[according to whom?]}. On two occasions, a French-German conflict over the fate of Morocco seemed inevitable.

Upon acquiring Southwest Africa, German settlers were encouraged to cultivate land held by the Herero and Nama. Herero and Nama tribal lands were used for a variety of exploitative goals (much as the British did before in Rhodesia), including farming, ranching, and mining for minerals and diamonds. In 1904, the Herero and the Nama revolted against the colonists in Southwest Africa, killing farm families, their laborers and servants. In response to the attacks, troops were dispatched to quell the uprising which then resulted in the Herero and Namaqua Genocide. In total, some 65,000 Herero (80% of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) perished. The commander of the punitive expedition, General Lothar von Trotha, was eventually relieved and reprimanded for his usurpation of orders and the cruelties he inflicted. These occurrences were sometimes referred to as "the first genocide of the 20th century" and officially condemned by the United Nations in 1985. In 2004 a formal apology by a government minister of the Federal Republic of Germany followed.

Middle East

Bismarck and Wilhelm II after him sought closer economic ties with the Ottoman Empire. Under Wilhelm II, with the financial backing of the Deutsche Bank, the Baghdad Railway was begun in 1900, although by 1914 it was still 500 km (310 mi) short of its destination in Baghdad.^[94] In an interview with Wilhelm in 1899, Cecil Rhodes had tried "to convince the Kaiser that the future of the German empire abroad lay in the Middle East" and not in Africa; with a grand Middle-Eastern empire, Germany could afford to allow Britain the unhindered completion of the Cape-to-Cairo railway that Rhodes favoured.^[95] Britain initially supported the Baghdad Railway; but by 1911 British statesmen came to fear it might be extended to Basra on the Persian Gulf, threatening Britain's naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean. Accordingly, they asked to have construction halted, to which Germany and the Ottoman Empire acquiesced.

South America

In South America, Germany's primary interest was in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay and viewed the countries of northern South America – Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela – as a buffer to protect its interest from the growing influence of the United States.^[96] Policymakers in Germany analysed the possibility of establishing bases in Margarita Island and showed interest in the Galápagos Islands but soon abandoned any such designs given that far-flung bases in northern South America would be very vulnerable.^[97]^[96] Germany attempted to promote Chile, a country that was heavily influenced by Germany,^[98] into a regional counterweight to the United States.^[96] Germany and Britain managed through Chile to have Ecuador deny the United States a naval base in the Galápagos Islands.^[96]

Claims that German communities in South America acted as extensions of the German Empire were ubiquituous by 1900 but it has never been proved that these communities acted in such way to any significant degree.^[99] German political, cultural and scientific influence was particularly intense in Chile in the decades before World War I, and the prestige of Germany and German things in Chile remained high after the war but did not recover to its pre-war levels.^[98]^[99]

Pre-war Europe

Berlin was deeply suspicious of a supposed conspiracy of its enemies: that year-by-year in the early 20th century it was systematically encircled by enemies.^[100] There was a growing fear that the supposed enemy coalition of Russia, France and Britain was getting stronger militarily every year, especially Russia. The longer Berlin waited the less likely it would prevail in a war.^[101] According to American historian Gordon A. Craig, it was after the set-back in Morocco in 1905 that the fear of encirclement began to be a potent factor in German politics."^[102] Few outside observers agreed with the notion of Germany as a victim of deliberate encirclement.^[103]^[104] English historian G. M. Trevelyan expressed the British viewpoint:

The encirclement, such as it was, was of Germany's own making. She had encircled herself by alienating France over Alsace-Lorraine, Russia by her support of Austria-Hungary's anti—Slav policy in the Balkans, England by building her rival fleet. She had created with Austria-Hungary a military bloc in the heart of Europe so powerful and yet so restless that her neighbors on each side had no choice but either to become her vassals or to stand together for protection....They used their central position to create fear in all sides, in order to gain their diplomatic ends. And then they complained that on all sides they had been encircled.^[105]

Wilhelm II, under pressure from his new advisors after Bismarck left, committed a fatal error when he decided to allow the "Reinsurance Treaty" that Bismarck had negotiated with Tsarist Russia to lapse. It allowed Russia to make a new alliance with France. Germany was left with no firm ally but Austria-Hungary, and her support for action in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 further soured relations with Russia. Berlin missed the opportunity to secure an alliance with Britain in the 1890s when it was involved in colonial rivalries with France, and he alienated British statesmen further by openly supporting the Boers in the South African War and building a navy to rival Britain's. By 1911, Wilhelm had completely picked apart the careful power balance established by Bismarck and Britain turned to France in the Entente Cordiale. Germany's only other ally besides Austria was the Kingdom of Italy, but it remained an ally only pro forma. When war came, Italy saw more benefit in an alliance with Britain, France, and Russia, which, in the secret Treaty of London in 1915 promised it the frontier districts of Austria and also colonial concessions. Germany did acquire a second ally in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire entered the war on its side, but in the long run, supporting the Ottoman war effort only drained away German resources from the main fronts.^[106]

World War I

Origins

Following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip, the Kaiser offered Emperor Franz Joseph full support for Austro-Hungarian plans to invade the Kingdom of Serbia, which Austria-Hungary blamed for the assassination. This unconditional support for Austria-Hungary was called a "blank cheque" by historians, including German Fritz Fischer. Subsequent interpretation – for example at the Versailles Peace Conference – was that this "blank cheque" licensed Austro-Hungarian aggression regardless of the diplomatic consequences, and thus Germany bore responsibility for starting the war, or at least provoking a wider conflict.

Germany began the war by targeting its chief rival, France. Germany saw the French Republic as its principal danger on the European continent as it could mobilize much faster than Russia and bordered Germany's industrial core in the Rhineland. Unlike Britain and Russia, the French entered the war mainly for revenge against Germany, in particular for France's loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871. The German high command knew that France would muster its forces to go into Alsace-Lorraine. Aside from the very unofficial Septemberprogramm, the Germans never stated a clear list of goals that they wanted out of the war.^[107]

Western Front

Germany did not want to risk lengthy battles along the Franco-German border and instead adopted the Schlieffen Plan, a military strategy designed to cripple France by invading Belgium and Luxembourg, sweeping down to encircle and crush both Paris and the French forces along the Franco-German border in a quick victory. After defeating France, Germany would turn to attack Russia. The plan required violating the official neutrality of Belgium and Luxembourg, which Britain had guaranteed by treaty. However, the Germans had calculated that Britain would enter the war regardless of whether they had formal justification to do so.^[108] At first the attack was successful: the German Army swept down from Belgium and Luxembourg and advanced on Paris, at the nearby river Marne. However, the evolution of weapons over the last century heavily favored defense over offense, especially thanks to the machine gun, so that it took proportionally more offensive force to overcome a defensive position. This resulted in the German lines on the offense contracting to keep up the offensive timetable while correspondingly the French lines were extending. In addition, some German units that were originally slotted for the German far-right were transferred to the Eastern Front in reaction to Russia mobilizing far faster than anticipated. The combined effect had the German right flank sweeping down in front of Paris instead of behind it exposing the German Right flank to the extending French lines and attack from strategic French reserves stationed in Paris. Attacking the exposed German right flank, the French Army and the British Army put up a strong resistance to the defense of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne, resulting in the German Army retreating to defensive positions along the river Aisne. A subsequent Race to the Sea resulted in a long-held stalemate between the German Army and the Allies in dug-in trench warfare positions from Alsace to Flanders.

German attempts to break through failed at the two battles of Ypres (1st/2nd) with huge casualties. A series of allied offensives in 1915 against German positions in Artois and Champagne resulted in huge allied casualties and little territorial change. German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn decided to exploit the defensive advantages that had shown themselves in the 1915 Allied offensives by attempting to goad France into attacking strong defensive positions near the ancient city of Verdun. Verdun had been one of the last cities to hold out against the German Army in 1870, and Falkenhayn predicted that as a matter of national pride the French would do anything to ensure that it was not taken. He expected that he could take strong defensive positions in the hills overlooking Verdun on the east bank of the river Meuse to threaten the city and the French would launch desperate attacks against these positions. He predicted that French losses would be greater than those of the Germans and that continued French commitment of troops to Verdun would "bleed the French Army white." In February 1916, the Battle of Verdun began, with the French positions under constant shelling and poison gas attack and taking large casualties under the assault of overwhelmingly large German forces. However, Falkenhayn's prediction of a greater ratio of French killed proved to be wrong as both sides took heavy casualties. Falkenhayn was replaced by Erich Ludendorff, and with no success in sight, the German Army pulled out of Verdun in December 1916 and the battle ended.

Eastern Front

While the Western Front was a stalemate for the German Army, the Eastern Front eventually proved to be a great success. Despite initial setbacks due to the unexpectedly rapid mobilisation of the Russian army, which resulted in a Russian invasion of East Prussia and Austrian Galicia, the badly organised and supplied Russian Army faltered and the German and Austro-Hungarian armies thereafter steadily advanced eastward. The Germans benefited from political instability in Russia and its population's desire to end the war. In 1917 the German government allowed Russia's communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin to travel through Germany from Switzerland into Russia. Germany believed that if Lenin could create further political unrest, Russia would no longer be able to continue its war with Germany, allowing the German Army to focus on the Western Front.

In March 1917, the Tsar was ousted from the Russian throne, and in November a Bolshevik government came to power under the leadership of Lenin. Facing political opposition, he decided to end Russia's campaign against Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria to redirect Bolshevik energy to eliminating internal dissent. In March 1918, by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshevik government gave Germany and the Ottoman Empire enormous territorial and economic concessions in exchange for an end to war on the Eastern Front. All of present-day Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania was given over to the German occupation authority Ober Ost, along with Belarus and Ukraine. Thus Germany had at last achieved its long-wanted dominance of "Mitteleuropa" (Central Europe) and could now focus fully on defeating the Allies on the Western Front. In practice, however, the forces that were needed to garrison and secure the new territories were a drain on the German war effort.

Colonies

Germany quickly lost almost all its colonies. However, in German East Africa, a guerrilla campaign was waged by the colonial army leader there, General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck. Using Germans and native Askaris, Lettow-Vorbeck launched multiple guerrilla raids against British forces in Kenya and Rhodesia. He also invaded Portuguese Mozambique to gain his forces supplies and to pick up more Askari recruits. His force was still active at war's end.^[109]

1918

The defeat of Russia in 1917 enabled Germany to transfer hundreds of thousands of troops from the Eastern to the Western Front, giving it a numerical advantage over the Allies. By retraining the soldiers in new infiltration tactics, the Germans expected to unfreeze the battlefield and win a decisive victory before the army of the United States, which had now entered the war on the side of the Allies, arrived in strength.^[110] In what was known as the "kaiserschlacht", Germany converged their troops and delivered multiple blows that pushed back the allies. However, the repeated German offensives in the spring of 1918 all failed, as the Allies fell back and regrouped and the Germans lacked the reserves needed to consolidate their gains. Meanwhile, soldiers had become radicalised by the Russian Revolution and were less willing to continue fighting. The war effort sparked civil unrest in Germany, while the troops, who had been constantly in the field without relief, grew exhausted and lost all hope of victory. In the summer of 1918, the British Army was at its peak strength with as many as 4.5 million men on the western front and 4,000 tanks for the Hundred Days Offensive, the Americans arriving at the rate of 10,000 a day, Germany's allies facing collapse and the German Empire's manpower exhausted, it was only a matter of time before multiple Allied offensives destroyed the German army.^[111]

Home front

The concept of "total war" meant that supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the Allied naval blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meagre conditions. First food prices were controlled, then rationing was introduced. During the war about 750,000 German civilians died from malnutrition.^[112]

Towards the end of the war, conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes included the transfer of many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railway system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade. The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter", because the people had to survive on a vegetable more commonly reserved for livestock, as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the soldiers' rations.^[113] The morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.

Spanish Flu Pandemic

The population of Germany was already suffering from outbreaks of disease due to malnutrition due to Allied blockade preventing food imports. Spanish flu arrived in Germany with returning troops. Around 287,000 people died of Spanish flu in Germany between 1918 and 1920 with 50,000 deaths in Berlin alone.

Revolt and demise

Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), which demanded an end to the war. The entry of the U.S. into the war in April 1917 tipped the long-run balance of power even more in favour of the Allies.

The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost, initiating the uprising. On 3 November, the revolt spread to other cities and states of the country, in many of which workers' and soldiers' councils were established. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government.

Bulgaria signed the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918. The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Between 24 October and 3 November 1918, Italy defeated Austria-Hungary in the battle of Vittorio Veneto, which forced Austria-Hungary to sign the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. So, in November 1918, with internal revolution, the Allies advancing toward Germany on the Western Front, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, its other allies out of the war and pressure from the German high command, the Kaiser and all German ruling kings, dukes, and princes abdicated, and German nobility was abolished. On 9 November, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a republic. The new government led by the German Social Democrats called for and received an armistice on 11 November. It was succeeded by the Weimar Republic.^[114] Those opposed, including disaffected veterans, joined a diverse set of paramilitary and underground political groups such as the Freikorps, the Organisation Consul, and the Communists.

Constitution

The Empire was a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

The Federal Council (Bundesrat) held sovereignty over the Empire and served as its highest authority.^[115] The Bundesrat was a legislative body that possessed the right of legislative initiative (Article VII Nr. 1) and, because all laws required its consent, could effectively veto any bill coming from the Reichstag (Article V).^[116] The Bundesrat was able to set guidelines and make organisational changes within the executive branch, act as supreme arbitrator in administrative disputes between states, and serve as constitutional court for states that did not have a constitutional court (Article LXXVI).^[116] It was composed of representatives who were appointed by and reported to the state governments.^[117]

The Imperial Diet (Reichstag) was a legislative body elected by universal male suffrage that effectively served as parliament. It had the right to propose bills and, with the concurrence of the Bundesrat, approve the state budget annually and the military budget for periods of seven years until 1893, then after that for five years. All laws required the Reichstag's approval to pass.^[118] After the constitutional reforms of October 1918, the Reich chancellor, through a change to Article XV, became dependent on the confidence of the Reichstag rather than the emperor.^[119]

The emperor (Kaiser) was head of state of the Empire – he was not a ruler. He appointed the chancellor, usually the person able to command the confidence of the Reichstag. The chancellor, in consultation with the emperor, determined the government's broad policy guidelines and presented them to the Reichstag.^[118] On the advice of the chancellor, the emperor appointed the ministers and – at least formally – all other imperial officers. All acts of the emperor except for military directives^[120] required the countersignature of the chancellor (Article XVII). The emperor was also responsible for signing bills into law, declaring war (which required the consent of the Bundesrat), negotiating peace, making treaties, and calling and adjourning sessions of the Bundesrat and the Reichstag (Articles XI and XII). The emperor was commander-in-chief of the Empire's Army (Article LXIII) and Navy (Article LIII);^[116] when exercising his military authority he had plenary power.

The chancellor was head of government and chaired the Bundesrat and the Imperial Government, led the lawmaking process and countersigned all acts of the emperor (except for military directives).^[118]

Constituent states

Before unification, German territory (excluding Austria and Switzerland) was made up of 27 constituent states. These states consisted of kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, free Hanseatic cities and one imperial territory. The free cities had a republican form of government on the state level, even though the Empire at large was constituted as a monarchy, and so were most of the states. Prussia was the largest of the constituent states, covering two-thirds of the empire's territory.

Several of these states had gained sovereignty following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, and had been de facto sovereign from the mid-1600s onward. Others were created as sovereign states after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Territories were not necessarily contiguous—many existed in several parts, as a result of historical acquisitions, or, in several cases, divisions of the ruling families. Some of the initially existing states, in particular Hanover, were abolished and annexed by Prussia as a result of the war of 1866.

Each component of the German Empire sent representatives to the Federal Council (Bundesrat) and, via single-member districts, the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). Relations between the Imperial centre and the Empire's components were somewhat fluid and were developed on an ongoing basis. The extent to which the German Emperor could, for example, intervene on occasions of disputed or unclear succession was much debated on occasion—for example in the inheritance crisis in Lippe-Detmold.

Unusually for a federation or a nation-state, the German states maintained limited autonomy over foreign affairs and continued to exchange ambassadors and other diplomats (both with each other and directly with foreign nations) for the Empire's entire existence. Shortly after the Empire was proclaimed, Bismarck implemented a convention in which his sovereign would only send and receive envoys to and from other German states as the King of Prussia, while envoys from Berlin sent to foreign nations always received credentials from the monarch in his capacity as German Emperor. In this way, the Prussian foreign ministry was largely tasked with managing relations with the other German states while the Imperial foreign ministry managed Germany's external relations.

Map and table

<imagemap> File:German Empire states map.svg|600px

desc top-right

Saxe-Meiningen

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poly 886 960.5 880 964 869 965.5 862.5 967.5 862.5 970.75 860 975 857 974.75 852 979.5 855.5 983.75 860 984 866 988 870.5 984 875.5 986.5 878.5 983.5 886.75 981 887.5 979.75 889 980 891.75 980 892 977 888 972.5 882 975 880 974.5 879.5 972 881 970 885 968 888 963 888 961 886 960.5 Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen

poly 611 988 605.5 989.75 604 992 609 996 609 997.5 611.5 999 611 996.5 612 995 614.5 998 617.5 995.5 616.5 994.5 616 991.5 619.5 992 622.5 991 619 988 611 988 Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen

poly 766 1016.5 764 1017.5 759 1018.5 759 1018.5 759 1018.5 757.5 1020 758 1023 758.5 1023 758.5 1026 761 1030.5 760 1032.75 760.75 1033 761.5 1035.5 763 1036 763 1036 768 1037.5 770 1038.5 770 1038.5 771 1039 773 1038 775.5 1038 778 1035.5 781 1034 783 1029.75 779.5 1028 776.5 1024.75 777.5 1022 774 1022 773.5 1020.5 770 1021.75 767.5 1020 766 1017 766 1016.5 Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen

poly 623.5 1017 623.5 1017 621 1020 613 1023 611.75 1030 607.75 1037.5 606 1043 610.5 1049.5 613.75 1053 617 1054.5 615 1056.5 612 1058 610.75 1057.5 609.5 1055.5 607.75 1058 607 1065.5 609.5 1073 604.5 1079 607.5 1080 609 1083.5 609.5 1091.5 613.5 1091.75 613.75 1095.5 616.5 1098.75 615 1104.75 610.5 1106.5 608 1108.5 609 1109.75 609.5 1114.75 613.5 1115.75 618.5 1120 624.75 1121.5 627 1123 628 1131 631.75 1137 637 1140.5 634 1146.75 641 1148.75 650.75 1154.75 651 1158.5 656 1160.5 658 1157.5 660.5 1158 661 1164.5 668.75 1168.75 668 1181.75 670.5 1190.5 669 1192.5 671 1197 677 1196.5 683 1198 685.75 1202 689.75 1202 690.5 1191.5 696 1192.5 703 1191.5 707 1194.75 711.5 1192.5 712.5 1191 711 1185 704.75 1182.5 703 1179 700 1178.5 698.5 1179 697.5 1176.75 695 1174 693.5 1174 690 1171.5 689 1169.5 690 1166.75 691 1167 691.5 1164.75 691 1163 689 1162.75 689 1160 691 1160 694 1162 697.5 1159.75 697.75 1158.75 701.5 1154.75 704 1155.75 710 1153.5 715.5 1154.5 716.75 1153.75 717.5 1154 719 1155.5 720 1155.75 721.5 1154 723.5 1154 727 1155.5 729 1159.5 733 1163 735 1166.5 737 1167 737.5 1162.75 743 1164 744.5 1165.5 744.75 1167 751 1166 752 1165 753.5 1161 755.5 1160 758 1159.75 760 1158.5 761.75 1158.75 763 1164 762 1167.75 763 1169.75 763 1174 759.75 1176.5 759.5 1179.75 762 1183.75 767 1185.5 767 1187.75 769 1189.75 771 1185 780 1190 782 1189 781 1183 782.5 1181.5 782 1172.5 783.75 1171.75 783 1167.5 785.5 1164.5 782 1153.5 783 1147 780 1137 781.75 1133 790 1132.5 793.75 1131 795 1126.5 797.75 1125 804.75 1124 812.5 1126.75 815.5 1131 813 1131.5 812.5 1133 812.75 1136.5 810 1143.5 810.5 1145.5 821 1152 821 1152 822 1144.75 820 1141.5 820.5 1139 820.5 1139 821 1132 820 1127.75 819 1124.75 815.5 1122 814.75 1119 812.75 1116 808 1115 807 1113.75 807.75 1112 807 1109.75 803.5 1108 802.5 1105.75 800 1106 798.5 1104.5 798.5 1102.5 800.75 1101 802 1099 804.5 1099 808 1096 812.75 1094 814.75 1094.75 814.75 1090 817 1090.5 819.5 1089.5 822 1090 822 1090 825 1087.75 826.5 1087.75 826.5 1088.5 829 1084.75 828 1082 829.5 1080 833 1078 835 1080 837.5 1080 843.5 1083 845.75 1083.5 848.5 1077 843 1072 841.75 1070 845 1064.5 844.5 1064 845.5 1063.5 841.5 1062 838.75 1064.5 834.75 1065.5 833.5 1070.75 825 1067.75 826.5 1063.5 823.75 1062 811.75 1066 811 1066 808.5 1069.5 810 1072 809.5 1074 804.5 1074.5 800.75 1076.5 800 1077.5 802 1080 802 1081 799 1082 795 1088.75 792.5 1088.75 789.5 1091 790.75 1092 790 1096 787 1096.75 788 1102.5 782.75 1107.5 782.5 1111 783 1112 781 1113 778.75 1113 778 1117 775.5 1119.5 772.5 1115 771.5 1117.75 774 1121 775 1128 772 1131.5 772.75 1135 769 1137.5 768.5 1136 769.75 1132.75 762.5 1134 757 1143.5 753 1140.5 749.5 1140.5 748.75 1138.5 744 1138 742 1133.75 742.75 1131 741.5 1125.75 738 1122 736.75 1120.5 736 1118 731.75 1116 731 1108 728.75 1107 729.5 1102.75 727.5 1097.75 723 1092 723 1092 723 1095 721 1096 721.5 1099 719.5 1105 720.5 1108.75 717 1117 710 1120 708.5 1122.5 708.5 1125 704 1133.75 701 1134 697.5 1133 693 1129.5 685 1129 679.5 1121 681 1119.5 685 1113.75 681 1112 678 1106 679.75 1104.75 680.75 1102 678.5 1098.5 675.5 1099 675 1096.75 673.5 1095.75 670 1097 669.5 1101 668 1102.5 666 1101.5 664 1102 664.75 1104.5 663 1104.75 659.5 1101.75 658.5 1102 657.5 1104.75 654.75 1104.5 651.5 1099.75 648.5 1097.75 651 1095.5 651.5 1093 648 1087.5 651 1084 649 1081 649 1081 632 1080.5 632 1080.5 630.5 1082 628.5 1080.5 623.5 1081 622.5 1079 623.5 1076 621.75 1073.5 621.75 1073.5 619 1071 619.5 1069.75 618.5 1068 621.75 1060 627 1062.5 628 1064 629.75 1063.75 633 1062 633 1061.75 632.5 1060 634 1059.5 631.5 1050 635.75 1049.75 637 1047.5 636 1044 631.5 1042 631.5 1042.5 627.5 1043.5 626 1040.5 629 1033 632.5 1034 632.5 1034 632.5 1034 644 1023.5 644 1023.5 641 1024.5 635.5 1023 635.5 1020 632.75 1021.5 628 1018.5 626 1019 623.5 1017 Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen

poly 644 1023.5 632.5 1034 632.5 1034 632.5 1037.5 631.5 1042 636 1044 636 1043.75 646 1031 644 1023.5 Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen

poly 782.75 1041.5 781.5 1044 789 1047 791 1043.5 782.75 1041.5 Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

poly 669 900.75 669 906.5 675 910 674.5 914.75 673 916.5 674 920.75 676 923 675.5 928 679 934 682 936 684 933.75 691 931 688 924.75 688.75 924 687 921.5 686.75 916.5 688.5 914.5 687.75 913 684 913 682.5 908.5 684 908.75 684.75 905.75 683.5 903.5 675 904.75 672 901.75 669 900.75 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

poly 635 941 634 942.75 633 946.5 634 950.5 632 953 630 952.5 629 954.75 631.5 956.75 635 957 639 956 643 954 643 954 643 953.75 640.5 950 640.5 948.5 635 941 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

poly 728.5 954 724 954.5 714.5 961 714 962 711.5 963 709.5 961 707.5 960 698 961.5 688.5 965 688 970 685.5 971 683 971 680 968.5 672.5 969 666.75 963 661.75 962.75 658 960 656.5 961 655 966.5 655 967.75 654 968.5 652.75 968 653 971 651.5 977 652 979 655 977 656.75 979 657 984.5 658.5 985 657 989.75 657.75 992.75 655.5 995 653 994 649 994 648.75 997 647 997 646 998 654 1000.5 660.75 1006 657.5 1009 650 1008.75 645 1005.75 641.5 1008.75 641 1011 642.75 1012 644 1017 646 1019.5 644 1023 644 1023.5 644 1023.5 645.75 1030.75 648.75 1031 654 1029.5 659 1034.5 660 1033.5 664 1033 665 1040.75 667.5 1045.5 668.75 1045.5 667.5 1048 668 1051.5 671 1056.5 673 1057 681 1062.75 682 1066 685.5 1065 685.5 1067.5 689 1067.5 689 1069.5 686.75 1072.5 684 1073 683.75 1075.75 691 1084 693 1083 695 1079.5 695 1077.5 696 1076 704.75 1079.5 706.75 1081.75 713 1079.5 717 1082.75 718.75 1082 719 1076.5 721.5 1074 720 1063 717.5 1064 712.75 1062 711.75 1064 709.75 1063.5 708.75 1061 710.75 1060 711 1058 712.75 1058 714 1058.75 718 1057.75 720 1059 720 1058.75 720.75 1058 724.75 1057.75 727 1056 727.5 1056 727.5 1056 729.75 1051.5 728.75 1048 727 1046 728.5 1043 727.75 1041 728.75 1036 732.5 1031.5 731 1029 731 1028 742 1021 742.5 1021.5 742.5 1018 746 1015.5 746.5 1013.5 742.75 1012.75 740.5 1011.5 741.75 1010.5 746 1007.75 748 1008.5 748 1004 745.5 1002.75 743.75 1001.5 741 1004 738 1006.5 736.75 1005.5 735 1005.5 733 1007.5 733 1009 731.75 1011 729 1010 725.75 1007 724.5 1005 727 1003.75 730.5 1000.5 730 999 720 998.5 718.75 997 720 996.5 720 994.75 718.75 993.75 715.5 996 714 995.75 714 993.5 717.75 988 720 986 723.5 986.5 726.5 989 731 987.75 733.5 984.5 728 981 725.75 978.75 727 975.5 725 972.75 721.5 971 719.75 966.75 720 963 722.75 961.5 727 961.5 729.75 956 728.5 954 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

poly 646 960 643.75 963 642.5 962 640 963 637 967.5 635.5 967.5 634 971 636 975 636 977 639.5 979 640.5 977.75 641.5 972.5 641 968.5 645 966.75 645.75 965 648.75 965 652 963.5 651.5 962 646 960 646 960 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

poly 652 964 652 964.5 652 964 652 964 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

poly 710 1153.5 704 1155.75 701.5 1154.75 697.75 1158.75 697.5 1159.75 694 1162 691 1160 689 1160 689 1162.75 691 1163 691.5 1164.75 691 1167 690 1166.75 689 1169.5 690 1171.5 693.5 1174 695 1174 697.5 1176.75 698.5 1179 700 1178.5 703 1179 704.75 1182.5 711 1185 712.5 1191 711.5 1192.5 711 1192.75 721.75 1197 720.75 1200 717 1203.75 717.75 1206.5 715 1208 714 1213 722 1217 724 1222 726 1220.5 730.5 1213.5 734.5 1212 734.5 1208 730.75 1205 731 1202.75 736.5 1204 740 1202 741.5 1198 745 1197 745 1202.75 753.5 1207 756.5 1207 764.5 1211 766 1212.5 768.75 1212.75 770 1211 771.75 1212.75 774.5 1212 775 1210.5 774 1208.75 774.5 1199 771 1194.5 771 1191 769.5 1189 769 1189.75 767 1187.75 767 1185.5 762 1183.75 759.5 1179.75 760 1176.5 763 1174 763 1169.75 762 1167.75 763 1164 761.75 1158.75 759.75 1158.5 758 1159.75 755.5 1160 753.5 1161 752 1165 751 1166 744.75 1167 744.5 1165.5 743 1164 737.5 1162.75 737 1167 735 1166.5 733 1163 729 1159.5 727 1155.5 723.5 1154 721.5 1154 720 1155.75 719 1155.5 717.5 1154 716.75 1153.75 715.5 1154.5 710 1153.5 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

poly 661.75 1228 660 1228.75 656 1229 655 1230 656 1233.5 658 1235.5 661.5 1235.5 663 1240.75 671 1242.5 673.75 1245.5 679.75 1243.5 682 1239.5 681 1236 677.5 1234.5 676.5 1239 674 1238 671.75 1235.5 672.5 1231.75 661.75 1228 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

poly 603.5 843.75 603.5 862.75 632 862.75 632 860.75 853 860.75 853 845.5 632 845.5 632 843.75 603.5 843.75 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

poly 750 873.5 748 873.75 740.5 878 735.5 879.75 731.5 879 727 875 718 879 715 879 714.5 883.5 709.75 883.5 709 884.75 711 885.75 712 887.75 711 890.5 709 892.5 709.5 895 709 897 707 896.75 703 893.5 702 896 699 897.75 698.5 896.5 687 888 683 888.5 677.5 886.5 676.5 887.75 671 889 668 892.5 667.5 895 668.5 900.5 672 901.75 675 904.75 683.5 903.5 685 905.75 684 908.75 682.5 908.5 684 913 688 913 688.5 914.5 687 916.5 687 921.5 688.75 924 692 919 694 917.75 694.5 913.5 697 914 698 920 699.5 922.5 699 922.75 702 929.5 705.5 931.5 707 931 709 932.5 710 931.75 711 925.5 713.5 922 715.5 921 717 922 716 923.75 717.5 927 721 928.75 730 928.5 733.5 933.75 740.5 934.5 747.5 931.5 747 928 747 926.75 746 924 745.5 921.5 741 918.5 740 916 742.5 914.5 746 916 750 916.5 752.5 915.5 753 913 747.5 907 747 905 743 899 744 897.75 750.75 901 749 895 750 887 752.75 885.75 753.5 876.5 754 875 750 873.5 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

poly 748 1020.75 745.5 1022 742 1021 731 1028 731 1029 732.5 1031.5 728.75 1036 727.75 1041 728.5 1043 727 1046 728.75 1048 729.75 1051.5 727.5 1056 727.5 1056 729 1059 731 1060 734.5 1053.75 738 1050.75 740.75 1057.5 737.5 1060 736 1064.5 739 1064 739 1066.5 741 1067.5 742 1064 744 1061.75 744 1059.75 743.5 1055.75 746.5 1053 748.5 1054 751.75 1051.5 753 1047 751 1041.75 750.75 1042 749.5 1039.5 750 1036.5 753 1036 755 1037 756 1040.75 756 1040.75 759.5 1043 759 1040.75 763 1036 761.5 1035.5 760.75 1033 760 1032.75 761 1030.5 758.5 1026 758.5 1023 751.75 1023 750 1021 748 1020.75 748 1020.75 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

poly 718 1057.75 714 1058.75 712.75 1058 711 1058 710.75 1060 709 1061 709.75 1063.5 711.75 1064 712.75 1062 717.5 1064 720 1063 720 1063 721.5 1062.5 720 1058.75 720 1059 718 1057.75 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

poly 743 1068 742 1070.5 739 1073 735 1072.75 735 1073 724 1084 724.75 1087.5 724.5 1091 723 1092 727.5 1097.75 729.5 1102.75 728.75 1107 731 1108 731.75 1116 736 1118 736.75 1120.5 738 1122 744 1116 744 1113 748.75 1109.75 750.5 1107 749.5 1105.5 750 1103.5 752 1101 752 1099 751 1097 748.75 1101 747.5 1102 745.5 1100 746.5 1098 743 1097 748 1090 745.5 1087.5 749.75 1085 751 1083.5 752.75 1082 752.5 1079.75 750 1080 750 1077.5 746.75 1074.75 745 1076 743 1075 743 1073 746 1072 747 1070 745.75 1068 743 1068 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 761.75 874 754.5 874.75 753.5 876.5 752.75 885.75 750 887 749 895 750.75 901.5 752 901 753.5 902 754.5 905 758.5 909 759.75 908 760 905 761 901 766.75 904.5 769.5 905.5 773 904.5 775 905 775 905 775 901.75 779 899 781 894.5 783 896 786.5 894 792 896.75 792 897 792.5 896.75 792.75 887.5 790.5 881.5 788.5 881 788 882.5 784 882 781.5 881 777.5 881.75 775 880 770 879 761.75 874 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 701.75 882.5 698 885.75 699 887 703.5 890 703 893.5 707 896.75 709 897 709.5 895 709 892.5 711 890.5 712 887.75 711 885.75 709 884.75 710 883.5 701.75 882.5 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 694.5 913.5 694 917.75 692 919 688 924.75 691 931 696 928 697 923 699.5 922.5 698 920 697 914 694.5 913.5 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 754 1018.5 748.5 1020.75 748.5 1020.75 750 1021 751.75 1023 758 1023 757.5 1020 759 1018.5 754 1018.5 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 763 1036 759 1041 759.5 1043 756 1040.75 751 1041.75 753 1047 752 1051.5 748.5 1054 749 1054 747.75 1058 744.5 1059.75 744 1059.75 744 1061.75 742 1064 741 1067.5 739 1066.5 739 1064 736 1064.5 734.75 1068 735 1072.75 738.75 1073 742 1070.5 743 1068 745.75 1068 747 1070 746 1072 743 1073 743 1075 745 1076 746.75 1074.75 750 1077.5 750 1080 752.5 1079.75 752.75 1082 751 1083.5 749.75 1085 745.5 1087.5 748 1090 743 1097 746.5 1098 745.5 1100 747.5 1102 748.75 1101 751 1097 752 1099 752 1101 750 1103.5 749.5 1105.5 750.5 1107 748.75 1109.75 744 1113 744 1116 738 1122 741.5 1125.75 742.75 1131 742 1133.75 744 1138 748.75 1138.5 749.5 1140.5 753 1140.5 757 1143.5 762.5 1134 769.75 1132.75 768.5 1136 769 1137.5 772.75 1135 772 1131.5 775 1128 774 1121 771.5 1117.75 772.5 1115 775.5 1119.5 778 1117 778.75 1113 781 1113 783 1112 782.5 1111 782.75 1107.5 788 1102.5 787 1096.75 790 1096 790.75 1092 789.5 1091 792.5 1088.75 795 1088.75 799 1082 802 1081 802 1080 800 1077.5 800.75 1076.5 804.5 1074.5 809.5 1074 810 1072 808.5 1069.5 811 1066 807.75 1064.75 807.75 1062 804.75 1059 801 1059 801 1058 803 1055.5 803.5 1051.5 800 1051.5 797 1048 792.5 1052.5 794 1055 792.5 1056.75 787 1059 783.75 1059 778.5 1064 776 1062 774 1062.75 772 1060 773.5 1056.75 773 1053.75 771.75 1052.5 770 1049 766 1046 764.75 1044.5 767.75 1037.5 770 1038.5 768 1037.5 763 1036 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 727 1056 724.75 1057.75 720.75 1058 720 1058.75 721.5 1062.5 728.5 1058.75 729 1059 727.5 1056 727 1056 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 825 1088 822 1090 820.5 1094 821 1097 818.5 1095.5 813 1094 808 1096 804.5 1099 802 1099 800.75 1101 798.5 1102.5 798.5 1104.5 800 1106 802.5 1106 803.5 1108 807 1109.75 808 1112 807 1114 808 1115 813 1116 815 1119 815.5 1122 819 1125 820 1128 821 1132 820.5 1139 827.5 1143 831 1135.5 829 1135.5 827.75 1133 827.5 1133 827 1130 826 1128 824 1128 822 1127 823.5 1123 826 1125 828.75 1125.75 831 1127 831 1125.5 829.5 1118.75 829.5 1118.75 828 1117.5 826.5 1113.5 826.75 1105.75 825.5 1100 827 1092.5 825.75 1090 826.5 1087.75 825 1087.75 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

poly 772.5 1222 772.5 1241 800 1241 800 1240 1021.5 1240 1021.5 1224.5 800 1224.5 800 1222 772.5 1222 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 827 938.5 818.5 941.75 814.75 948.5 806.5 943 800.75 941.5 798.5 942.75 793.75 943.75 789.5 946.75 786.5 951 779.75 950.5 775.5 952.5 772.75 956 768 957 757.75 955.5 748 948 744 951.5 744.5 956 743 965 745.5 974.5 749 979 755 978.5 758.75 980 762 983 762 987.5 761 989 762.75 993.5 765 995.75 766.5 995 768 996.5 771 1005.5 768 1007 765.75 1009.5 766.5 1014 766 1017 767.5 1020 770 1021.75 773.5 1020.5 774 1022 777.5 1022 776.5 1024.75 779.5 1028 783 1029.75 781 1034 778 1035.5 775.5 1038 773 1038 771 1039 767.75 1037.5 764.75 1044.5 766 1046 770 1049 771.75 1052.5 773 1053.75 773.5 1056.75 772 1060 774 1062.75 776 1062 778.5 1064 783.75 1059 787 1059 792.5 1056.75 794 1055 792.5 1052.5 797 1048 800 1051.5 803.5 1051.5 803.5 1051.5 807.75 1050 812.5 1046 813 1048.5 815.5 1049.5 819 1048 820.5 1045.75 819 1043 821 1039 819.75 1035.5 822.75 1035.75 826.5 1033.75 832.75 1035.5 837.5 1035.5 839.5 1037.5 842.5 1038 843.5 1040.75 846.5 1043 851 1040.5 852.5 1032.5 853.5 1032 853.5 1029 856 1027 861 1016.75 865 1019.75 865.75 1018.5 870.75 1020 873 1026.5 877 1025 879 1028.5 883 1025 883.75 1018.5 880 1018 875.5 1014.5 875.75 1012 875 1009 881.5 997.5 884.5 997 884.75 996 878.5 995.75 877 992 877.5 987.5 870.5 984 866 988 860 984 855.5 983.75 852 979.5 849 982.75 847 981 847 974.75 849 974.5 855 970.75 859.5 968.5 853.5 966 849.75 967.5 841.5 963.5 835 964 833.75 965 831 965 828 962.5 826 956 825 955 825.5 952.5 831 949.5 828 944.75 828 940.5 827 938.5 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 753 1036 750 1036.5 749.5 1039.5 750.75 1042 756 1040.75 755 1037 753 1036 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 939.5 1037 939.5 1038 939.75 1037.5 939.5 1037 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 939.5 1038 934.5 1040 933 1042 931 1042.5 924.5 1045 923.5 1047 921.5 1047 918 1043 914 1043.5 914 1042 909 1042.5 908 1042 907.5 1040 900.75 1043 896 1042 895 1044.75 896 1049 893.5 1052 892 1051 890 1054 887.75 1052 881.5 1054 871.5 1059.5 861.5 1061.75 857.75 1057.5 854.5 1061.5 851.75 1062.5 849 1065.75 845 1064.5 842 1070 843 1072 853 1081 854 1086 852 1089.75 854 1092 859 1094 858 1099 861 1101.5 865 1103 865.75 1106.75 868.75 1104.75 870.5 1106 871.5 1103 873.5 1101.75 872 1098 874.75 1094.75 878 1092.5 879 1093 879.5 1088 881.75 1086 885.5 1086.5 888.5 1085 890 1087 893.75 1086 898 1086.5 899.5 1089 902.75 1090.5 903.5 1088.5 908.5 1086.5 908.5 1086.5 913 1082.75 913 1082 914 1078 918.75 1074.5 918.75 1074 920 1074 920 1073.5 920 1069.5 924 1067.5 928.5 1068 928.5 1068 932.75 1070.5 936 1069 939 1069 941.75 1069.75 940 1072.5 942.5 1074 941 1075.75 945 1078 948.5 1075 948 1072.75 950 1069 953.5 1068 953.75 1068.75 953.75 1068 952.75 1062.5 945.75 1062.75 943.75 1060.5 950 1059 950 1055.5 948 1054.75 947.5 1052.75 946.75 1052 938.5 1047.75 938 1042.75 937.75 1042.75 939.5 1038 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 738 1050.75 734.5 1053.75 731 1060 728.5 1058.75 720 1063 721.5 1074 719 1076.5 718.5 1086.75 722.75 1092 724.5 1091 724.75 1087.5 724 1084 735 1073 734.75 1068 737.5 1060 740.75 1057.5 738 1050.75 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 781 894.5 779 899 775 901.75 775 905 778 907 781 905.75 783.5 906.5 785.5 905 790 899 792 896.75 786.5 894 783 896 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 808 898.5 812 901 817 899.5 820 896.75 823.5 898 827.5 894.5 830 894 829 888.5 837 880.5 834 872 826.5 870.5 822 872.75 822 875 818.5 875 814 868 809 872.5 806.5 876.5 810.5 878.75 812 884 811 885 812 886.75 812 891 808.5 894 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 612.75 1119 614 1120 615 1133.75 613.5 1135.5 607 1134 599 1132 588 1122 589.5 1119.75 593 1118.75 593.75 1115 599.5 1114.75 603 1122 607 1125.5 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 901 1095 899 1098 897 1098 897 1094 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 630.5 1076 630 1079 632 1080.5 630.5 1082 628.5 1080.5 623.5 1081 622.5 1079 623.5 1076 625.75 1076.5 627 1075 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 632 1070 633 1072 630.5 1073 627.75 1073 623.5 1072.5 622 1073.5 619 1071 619.5 1069.75 618.5 1068 621.75 1060 627 1062.5 628 1064 630 1063.75 628 1067.5 629 1070 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

poly 608 1109 610.5 1106.5 615 1104.75 616.5 1098.75 613.75 1095.5 613.5 1091.75 609.5 1091.5 609 1083.5 607.5 1080 604.5 1079 609.5 1073 607 1065.5 607.75 1058 609.5 1055.5 610.75 1057.5 612 1058 615 1056.5 617 1054.5 613.75 1053 610.5 1049.5 606 1043 607.75 1037.5 611.75 1030 613 1023 621 1020 623.5 1017 626 1019 628 1018.5 632.75 1021.5 635.5 1020 635.5 1023 641 1024.5 644 1023 646 1019.5 644 1017 642.75 1012 641 1011 641.5 1008.75 645 1005.75 650 1008.75 657.5 1009 660.75 1006 654 1000.5 646 998 647 997 648.75 997 649 994 653 994 655.5 995 657.75 992.75 657 989.75 658.5 985 657 984.5 656.75 979 655 977 652 979 651.5 977 653 971 652 963.5 648.75 965 645.75 965 645 966.75 641 968.5 641.5 972.5 640.5 977.75 639.5 979 636 977 636 975 634 971 635.5 967.5 637 967.5 640 963 642.5 962 643.75 963 646 960 645 959 643 954 639 956 635 957 631.5 956.75 629 954.75 630.5 952.5 629 952.5 626.5 954 616.5 952.5 606.75 950.5 607.5 954 605.75 956 604 957 604.5 962 603 966 611.75 971 614 974.5 608.75 983.5 603.5 983.5 599 980.75 599 979.5 584.75 977.5 582 979 581 983 579.75 986 581.5 991 584.5 995 581 997 578.75 997 575 994 567.75 996 568 999.5 574 999 574 1000.5 571.5 1003 576 1007 579.75 1004.75 584.5 1008 585 1010.5 582.5 1014 579 1016.5 578.5 1019.5 579.5 1021.5 578.5 1024 576 1022.5 574.5 1025.5 572 1026.5 570 1025.75 566 1029 564.75 1034 564.5 1037.75 562 1039 561.5 1042 558.5 1043.5 561 1049.75 561 1054.5 558 1059 558.5 1062 552.5 1066 552 1075.75 558 1076.75 563 1078.5 567 1074.75 563.75 1071 564 1068.75 571.5 1065.5 574.75 1066 584.75 1073 585 1077.75 584.75 1082.5 581 1080.75 579 1082.75 579 1090 579 1095 580 1099 576.75 1106.5 578 1112 580.75 1110 589 1100 592 1101 592.5 1106.5 595.5 1103 599 1105.5 603.5 1101.75 606 1104.5 606 1107 Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Reuss-Greiz

poly 937.75 1042.75 938.5 1047.75 947 1052 948 1048 945.75 1046.75 946.75 1045.5 946.75 1043.5 937.75 1042.75 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

poly 928.5 1068 927 1070 928 1073 926 1075.5 924 1076 920 1073.5 920 1074 918.75 1074 918.75 1074.5 919.5 1077 920.75 1077.75 923 1077 923 1079 926 1079 929.75 1077.75 931 1076 933 1076.5 934 1079.75 933 1080.5 934.5 1082 933.5 1085 930 1086 924 1091.5 922.5 1095 922.75 1098 920.5 1099.5 920 1101.75 918 1103 916 1102 914 1103 914.5 1108.5 913.5 1115 915 1118.5 918.5 1116 921.75 1113 931.75 1111.5 936 1110 937 1106.75 936 1103 933 1103.75 929.5 1106.5 927.5 1106.5 926 1103.75 926 1101.75 929.5 1099.75 929.5 1097.5 927 1096 927 1095 928.5 1093 931.75 1094 935.5 1092.75 938.5 1095 939.75 1097.5 945.75 1096 950.75 1098 952.5 1094.5 958.5 1095 964 1089 970.5 1083 971 1080 970.5 1078 968.5 1077.75 960 1086.75 958.5 1086.5 956 1081 954.5 1078.75 956 1072.75 953.5 1068 950 1069 948 1072.75 948.5 1075 945 1078 941 1075.75 942.5 1074 940 1072.5 941.75 1069.75 939 1069 936 1069 932.75 1070.5 928.5 1068 928.5 1068 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

poly 913 1082 913 1082.75 908.5 1086.5 911 1090 910 1092.5 913 1099 916 1100 919 1096 919 1093.5 917 1092.5 916 1090.5 918 1088.5 916 1087 915 1086.5 913 1082 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

poly 986 1092.5 986 1127.5 1037 1127.5 1037 1092.5 986 1092.5 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

poly 878 1092.5 874.75 1094.75 872 1098 873.5 1101.75 871.5 1103 870.5 1106 868.75 1104.75 860 1110.5 859.75 1114 856.75 1121.5 854 1123 851 1122.75 851.75 1124.75 850 1126.75 848 1126 848 1131 846 1133 851 1138 853.75 1135.5 855 1136 854 1139.5 858 1143 859 1140.75 862.5 1138 865.5 1132.75 861 1127.5 863 1125.5 863.75 1123.75 866 1124 876 1119 877.5 1111 877 1107 879.75 1104 878.75 1100.5 880 1099 879 1096.5 879 1093 878 1092.5 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

poly 957.75 1099 957.75 1118.75 982.5 1118.75 982.5 1099 957.75 1099 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

poly 823.5 1123 822 1127 824 1128 826 1128 827 1130 827.5 1133 830 1130 831 1127 828.75 1125.75 826 1125 823.5 1123 Principality of Reuss-Greiz

Saxe-Altenburg

poly 878.75 932 878.75 950 1023.75 950 1023.75 933.5 905.75 933.5 905.75 932 878.75 932 Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg

poly 975 973.75 963.5 977.5 970 979.5 967.5 985.5 964 986.75 960.75 993.75 962.75 997.5 960.5 999.5 961 1008 957 1012 957 1012 952.5 1016.5 952 1022.5 949 1025 948.5 1022.75 943 1030.75 940 1032 939.5 1037 939.75 1037.5 939.5 1038 939.5 1038 939.5 1038 937.75 1042.75 938 1042.75 937.75 1042.75 946.75 1043.5 946.75 1045.5 945.75 1046.75 948 1048 947 1052 946.75 1052 947.5 1052.75 948 1054.75 950 1055.5 950 1059 953 1058.5 956 1056 966 1055.75 972 1050 968.75 1044.75 973.5 1040 981 1039.5 985.75 1042 990 1039.5 991.5 1031 997 1030.5 1001 1028 1005.75 1020 1009 1019.5 1009.75 1023.5 1006 1028 1007 1032 1019 1030.5 1022.5 1025.75 1021.75 1021.5 1017 1018.5 1018 1011 1002.5 1004.75 1002.75 990 997 983 984 984 982 983 976.5 986 976 975.75 975 973.75 Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg

poly 883.75 989.75 883 992 885 994 884.5 997 881.5 997.5 875 1009 875.75 1012 875.5 1014.5 880 1018 883.75 1018.5 883 1025 879 1028.5 877 1025 873 1026.5 870.75 1020 865.75 1018.5 865 1019.75 861 1016.75 856 1027 853.5 1029 853.5 1032 852.5 1032.5 851 1040.5 846.5 1043 843.5 1040.75 842.5 1038 839.5 1037.5 837.5 1035.5 832.75 1035.5 826.5 1033.75 822.75 1035.75 819.75 1035.5 821 1039 819 1043 820.5 1045.75 819 1048 815.5 1049.5 813 1048.5 812.5 1046 807.75 1050 803.5 1051.5 803 1055.5 801 1058 801 1059 804.75 1059 807.75 1062 807.75 1064.75 811.75 1066 823.75 1062 826.5 1063.5 825 1067.75 833.5 1070.75 834.75 1065.5 838.75 1064.5 841.5 1062 845.5 1063.5 844.5 1064 849 1065.75 851.75 1062.5 854.5 1061.5 857.75 1057.5 861.5 1061.75 871.5 1059.5 881.5 1054 887.75 1052 890 1054 892 1051 893.5 1052 896 1049 895 1044.75 896 1042 900.75 1043 907.5 1040 907 1039.5 908.75 1038 908 1035 905.5 1034.5 903 1033 904 1030 906 1029 910.5 1029.5 911 1025.75 909.75 1024.5 915 1021 915 1019 913 1019 912.5 1016 915 1012.5 917 1008 917.5 1008 914 1003 909 1002 908 1000 910 996.75 909 990 906.75 989.75 901 994 901 998 896.5 996.5 893.5 999 889 996.5 887.5 991.5 883.75 989.75 Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg

poly 936 1015.5 934 1017.75 936 1021 936.5 1023.5 937.75 1024 940.5 1023.5 941 1021.75 940.5 1019 938.75 1017.75 938 1015.75 936 1015.5 Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg

poly 746.5 1053 743.5 1055.75 744.5 1059.75 747.75 1058 749 1054 746.5 1053 Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg

Reuss-Gera

poly 876 1148 872.75 1148 869 1149 870 1156 870 1156 873 1155 876 1157.75 878.75 1161.75 881.5 1159.5 886 1156.5 889.75 1155 886 1150.5 885 1152 883 1152 879.5 1149.75 879 1148 Principality of Reuss-Gera

poly 925 1005 924 1005.75 924 1008 917 1008 915 1012.5 912.5 1016 913 1019 915 1019 915 1021 909.75 1024.5 911 1025.75 910.5 1029.5 906 1029 904 1030 903 1033 905.5 1034.5 908 1035 908.75 1038 907 1039.5 908 1042 909 1042.5 914 1042 914 1043.5 918 1043 921.5 1047 923.5 1047 924.5 1045 931 1042.5 933 1042 934.5 1040 939.5 1038 940 1032 943 1030.75 948.5 1023 949 1025 952 1022.5 952.5 1016.5 957 1012 951 1010 947 1008 946 1007.75 942 1005 936 1006 934 1005.5 930.5 1006 929 1005 Principality of Reuss-Gera

poly 924 1067.5 920 1069.5 920 1073.5 924 1076 926 1075.5 928 1073 927 1070 928.5 1068 Principality of Reuss-Gera

poly 918.75 1074.5 914 1078 913 1082 915 1086.5 916 1087 918 1088.5 916 1090.5 917 1092.5 919 1093.5 919 1096 916 1100 913 1099 914 1101.5 914 1103 916 1102 918 1103 920 1101.75 920.5 1099.5 922.75 1098 922.5 1095 924 1091.5 930 1086 933.5 1085 934.5 1082 933 1080.5 934 1079.75 933 1076.5 931 1076 929.75 1077.75 926 1079 923 1079 923 1077 921 1077.75 919.5 1077 Principality of Reuss-Gera

poly 888.5 1085 885.5 1086.5 881.75 1086 879.5 1088 879 1096.5 880 1099 878.75 1100.5 879.75 1104 877 1107 877.5 1111 876 1119 866 1124 863.75 1123.75 863 1125.5 861 1127.5 865.5 1132.75 862.5 1138 859 1140.75 858 1143 854 1139.5 855 1136 853.75 1135.5 851 1138 846 1133 848 1131 848 1126 843 1126.75 835.75 1121.5 829.5 1118.75 831 1125.5 830 1130 827.5 1133 827.75 1133 829 1135.5 831 1135.5 827.5 1143 820.5 1139 820 1141.5 822 1144.75 821 1152 822.75 1158 826 1158.75 828 1161.5 826.75 1164 834.5 1161.75 837 1158 839 1157.75 842.75 1161 854.75 1160.5 858.5 1159 860 1156 863.75 1156.5 864.5 1159.75 868.5 1158 868.5 1155.75 870 1156 869 1148 872 1143 874 1141.75 875 1144 876 1148 879 1148 880.5 1144.5 880.5 1143.5 881.75 1143 886.5 1144 886.75 1146 885 1149 889.75 1155 892 1154 889.75 1146 896 1140 894.5 1123.5 897 1120 893.5 1113 893 1108 895 1106 894.75 1102.5 899.5 1101 903 1103 907 1099.5 911.75 1096.75 910 1092.5 911 1090 908.5 1086.5 908.5 1086.5 903.5 1088.5 902.75 1090.5 899.5 1089 898 1086.5 893.75 1086 890 1087 Principality of Reuss-Gera

poly 912 1126 912 1147 938.5 1147 938.5 1143 1025 1143 1025 1129.5 938.5 1129.5 938.5 1126 Principality of Reuss-Gera

More Prussia

poly 348.5 476.5 347.5 484 342 482 Kingdom of Prussia

poly 323.75 484 329 485 332 492.5 337.75 496.75 335.75 499 339 502 340 499 346.5 500.75 349 505.5 347.5 512.75 344.5 514 342.5 518.5 334 513.75 336 511 332.75 505.5 327 508.5 324.75 505 324 498.75 319 493 319.5 489.5 323.75 484 Kingdom of Prussia

poly 391 499 396 508.5 391 516 384 512.5 383.5 505 386 500 389.5 501.75 391 499 Kingdom of Prussia

Thuringen

poly 379.75 429.75 377.5 432.5 379 436.75 377.5 439.5 379 440.75 385 438.5 384.75 436 387.5 433.75 386 430.5 382.75 430.5 381.5 432 379.75 429.75 Thuringian states

poly 359.5 430.75 340.75 434.75 341.75 439.5 335 435.5 330.5 438 334 452.5 341.5 448.75 344 451.75 346 447 353 452.5 357 452 358 440.5 361.5 443.5 361.5 440 369 443 373 438 371.75 434 359.5 430.75 Thuringian states

poly 383.5 453 380 457 375.5 453 364.5 458.75 356.5 456 357 465.5 361 467 364.5 474 363.5 479 356.5 480 357.5 474 352.75 476.75 346.5 470.75 352.75 469.5 348 461.75 351 458 338.5 461.75 336.5 464 328.75 460 324.75 462 319.5 453 318.75 458 310 456.5 308.5 462 312.5 464.5 310.5 467.75 303.5 466 301 467.5 303.5 471.5 296.75 472 303.5 476.75 295 487.5 294 493.5 291.5 498 296 499.5 298.5 495 303.5 497.75 302 500.5 300.5 511 305 507 310 508.5 312 513 310 515 307 511.5 304 514 307 517.75 313.5 519.5 314 513 317 515 320 520 319.5 523.75 331.5 530 331 538 338 541.5 338.75 537.5 348.5 539 345 544 349.75 547.5 354 543 352 541.75 356 540 366 545 367 540 364 535.5 368.5 536.75 369.5 528 369 518 375.5 515 380.5 517 378.5 522 384 528 399.75 525.75 402 527.5 405 526 405.75 509.75 411 506 412.5 513 420 510.5 418 505.5 426 507 433 498.75 427 502 425 493.75 441.5 482.5 444 485 449.75 482.5 433 464.75 431 466 431.5 466.5 427.5 476.75 413 476 411.5 470 400.75 472.5 399.75 469 405.75 466.5 404.75 460 396.75 462.5 384 462 Thuringian states

poly 329 549 326.5 550 333 555.75 336.5 553 329 549 Thuringian states

Alsace-Lorraine

poly 136 761.75 136.75 758 132 751.75 135.5 746.75 134.5 742 142 725.5 139 715.75 149 696.5 152 694.5 153.75 683 157.5 678.75 160.5 667.5 168.75 658.75 175.75 654.75 186 639.75 179 638 170.5 631 165.5 632 162.5 630 154.75 630.5 146.75 626 144.5 618.5 138 618 132.5 622.75 123 618 119 621 117 614 108 610.5 107 616 101 614.5 92 591 86.5 586 81.75 585 81.5 585 72 580 66 583.75 65 583 61 584.75 58 578 55.5 579 58 584 57 585.5 57.5 597 60.5 597 60 604 57.5 606.5 58.5 608 56.5 613.5 53.75 615 59 624 58.75 625.5 63.75 630 69.5 632 71.5 631.5 73.75 633.5 72 639.5 73.75 640.75 75.5 645 89.75 650.5 89.5 652.75 97.5 659 98.5 662.5 105.75 663 111.5 665.5 116 674 119 674.5 115 681.5 115 686.75 111.5 690 119.5 692.5 111 706 111 709.5 100 723 97.5 729.75 97.5 734 93.5 735.5 93 739.75 99.5 741 104.5 746 102.75 754.75 106.5 757.5 109 765.5 112 766.5 111 770.75 115.5 772.75 118.5 771 126.5 771 126.5 768 130 769 133 764.75 133 762.5 136 761.75 Alsace–Lorraine

Baden

poly 245 762 249 759.75 247.5 739 247 739.5 238 734 232 744 223.75 740.5 228 737.75 232.5 739 232.5 731 238 732 228.5 716 221 715 224.5 726.5 220.5 729 221.5 736.75 216 732 213 736 207 729.5 198.5 725.75 194 721 200.5 720.5 196 712 191 712.5 184 703.75 189 704.75 191.5 698 188 694.75 189 686.75 182 679.75 183 674.5 188 676.75 196 670.5 199 660 193 660.5 193 654.5 200.5 657 199.75 651.5 206 649 211 651 209 654.75 219 661.75 221 657.5 218 653.5 221 647 216 640 219.5 631.75 224.5 635.75 235.5 621 242.5 618 241 612.75 247 611.5 247 618 252 620.5 253.5 618 249.5 611 254 606.75 254 615 260 611.5 259 606 268 611.5 274 607 276.5 598 281 597 285 588.75 282 579.5 279 582.75 277.5 580.5 274 584 273 574 268 575.75 263 573.75 254 575.75 256 581 260 580 259 586 252.5 585 247.5 592 240 591 241.5 596.75 231.5 596.75 229.75 603.5 220.5 607 228.5 597 219 594 216 585.5 212.5 585 212 593.75 208.5 592 207 589.5 201.5 586 203 599.75 206 600.75 202 605 206 606.5 202 609.5 204 613 198 618 192 634.75 185.5 640 175.75 654.75 168.75 658.75 160.5 667.5 157.5 678.75 153.75 683 152 694.5 149 696.5 139 715.75 142 725.5 134.5 742 135.5 746.75 132 751.75 136.75 758 136 761.75 143 760 141 764 147 764.5 150.5 761 155 761.75 156 764.75 166.5 765.75 169 762.75 178 761.5 182 765.5 191 765.75 191 763 195 761.75 197 764.5 200 758.5 192.5 760 187 756.75 191 750.5 198 747 203 748 207 751.75 206 753.5 208 757 211 753 214 756 214 760.5 222.5 757.5 219.5 755 222.5 753.5 228 757.75 230 761 234.5 761 233 755 225.5 750 225 747.5 236 754.75 238 759.75 245 762 Grand Duchy of Baden

Würtemberg

poly 257 770 275.5 762.5 280 764.5 290 764.5 288.75 752 290 750 292 725.5 284.5 700 290 694 304.75 690 304.75 680 302 672 314.5 677.5 316 674.75 313 670 315 650.75 303 637 305.5 633.5 298.75 630 297.5 597.5 293 603 287 601 289 593.5 282 595 281 597 276.5 598 274 607 268 611.5 259 606 260 611.5 254 615 254 606.75 249.5 611 253.5 618 252 620.5 247 618 247 611.5 241 612.75 242.5 618 235.5 621 224.5 635.75 219.5 631.75 216 640 221 647 218 653.5 221 657.5 219 661.75 209 654.75 211 651 206 649 199.75 651.5 200.5 657 193 654.5 193 660.5 199 660 196 670.5 188 676.75 183 674.5 182 679.75 189 686.75 188 694.75 191.5 698 189 704.75 184 703.75 191 712.5 196 712 200.5 720.5 194 721 198.5 725.75 207 729.5 213 736 216 732 221.5 736.75 220.5 729 224.5 726.5 221 715 228.5 716 227.5 714.75 233 708.5 227.5 701 222 703 210.75 698.5 209.5 695 202 693 201.5 687.5 243 699.5 243 731.75 243 731.75 243 731.75 251 732.75 247.5 739 249 759.75 245 762 245.5 762 252 765 257 770 Kingdom of Württemberg

Bavaria

poly 305 507 300.5 511 300 515 290 521 284 517 283 530 276.5 532 277 535 269 532.5 268.5 546 262 547 261 543 250.5 540 248 544.75 245.5 541.5 240.5 542.5 238.5 545.5 239.5 567.75 245 576 239 586 240 591 247.5 592 252.5 585 259 586 260 580 256 581 254 575.75 263 573.75 268 575.75 273 574 274 584 277.5 580.5 279 582.75 282 579.5 285 588.75 282 595 289 593.5 287 601 293 603 297.5 597.5 298.75 630 305.5 633.5 303 637 315 650.75 313 670 316 674.75 314.5 677.5 302 672 304.75 680 304.75 690 290 694 284.5 700 292 725.5 290 750 288.75 752 290 764.5 280 764.5 275.5 762.5 257 770 257 770 266 774.5 269.5 770 271 775 279.5 777 288 785 285 787 287 791 295 790.5 292 800 301 796.75 310 787 307.5 780.75 309 776.75 316 778 318 775 327 779 328 781 334.5 778.75 336 781 334 783 336.5 783.5 340 791 348 792 350 790.5 356.5 789.5 356 792.5 363 788 366 788.75 365 786 367 783 376 783.5 379.75 776 392 778 394 776.5 402.5 774 416 775.75 415 767 418 765 418.5 768.75 429.5 768.5 432.5 774 438 774 440.5 770 450 771.5 449.75 773.5 452 776 451 780 462.5 790 465.5 786.5 466 779 469 775 467 768 462 768 459 767 463.5 756.75 460 746.75 456.5 744.75 455 740.5 451 737 449 731 454 728.75 456 723.5 461 722.75 466 718 474 715 478 716 485.5 711.75 490 704.5 491 692.5 494 692.5 495 690 507 696.5 509.5 692.5 511 693 514 687.75 514 680 512 678.75 514 673.75 509 664 505.5 664.5 502 657.5 496 655.5 495 657.75 489 653.75 488 648.75 482 642.5 477 642 463 622.5 454 622 451 615.5 446.5 613 446 606 443 605 441 597.75 439 595.75 440 592.5 432 585 435.5 583 442 570.75 437 568.5 438.5 566 434 564.5 426 557 421 550.5 422 545.5 416 540 419 538 418.5 534 411 531.5 407.75 524.5 402 527.5 399.75 525.75 384 528 378.5 522 380.5 517 375.5 515 369 518 369.5 528 368.5 536.75 364 535.5 367 540 366 545 356 540 352 541.75 354 543 349.75 547.5 345 544 348.5 539 338.75 537.5 338 541.5 331 538 331.5 530 319.5 523.75 320 520 317 515 314 513 313.5 519.5 307 517.75 304 514 307 511.5 310 515 312 513 310 508.5 305 507 Kingdom of Bavaria

poly 329 549 336.5 553 333 555.75 326.5 550 329 549 Kingdom of Bavaria

poly 173 562.5 173 563 164 563 159.75 569 161 571.5 156 574.75 153 573.5 155 579 153 580.75 145 574.75 145.5 579 140 579 141.5 584 132 586 130.5 588.75 135 595 131 598 130 605 121 602 121 613.75 124 614 122.75 618 123 618 132.5 622.75 138 618 144.5 618.5 146.75 626 154.75 630.5 162.5 630 165.5 632 170.5 631 179 638 186 639.75 185.5 640 192 634.75 198 618 204 613 202 609.5 206 606.5 202 605 206 600.75 203 599.75 201.5 586 198 583.5 192 585 192 585 183.5 571 177.5 576 173 562.5 Kingdom of Bavaria

Saxony

poly 459.5 429.5 447.5 438.5 440 432.75 431 435.5 422 446 428 448.5 429 454 427 457 425.5 463.5 431 466 433 464.75 449.75 482.5 444 485 441.5 482.5 425 493.75 427 502 433 498.75 426 507 418 505.5 420 510.5 412.5 513 411 506 405.75 509.75 405 526 407.75 524.5 411 531.5 418.5 534 418.5 534 421 534 422 535.5 428.75 547.5 429.5 543 441 528 448 526 451 527.5 458.75 523 465 527.5 468 526 470 519 479.5 519 482.75 513.5 490 508 494.5 510.75 500 501.75 518.75 498.75 519.5 494.75 524 492.75 529 492.75 540 485 547 484.5 548 481.75 542 477 542 471.5 552 473 560 478 558 483.5 562 482.5 562 489 570 492.5 572.75 487 582 487.75 583 479 580.75 476 583 474 583.75 474.5 580 468.5 574 467.75 562 456.5 558.5 447.75 551 444.5 548 449.75 544 444.5 539 446.75 536 442 501 441 493 435.75 482 438.5 468 435.5 459.5 429.5 Kingdom of Saxony

Hesse

poly 254 478.5 237 488.75 228 488 220.5 499 219.75 511.5 214.5 515 220.5 522.75 218 529 221 535 233 532 231 526 247 532.75 259.75 512 264 518.75 267 516 271 493.5 278 500.5 278 485.5 273 488.75 270.5 485.5 262 485.5 254 478.5 Grand Duchy of Hesse

poly 223.5 539 223 544 213 545.75 211 541.5 206 548.5 200.5 548.5 198 546.5 192 545.75 174 549.75 176 554.5 173 562.5 177.5 576 183.5 571 192 585 192 585 198 583.5 207 589.5 208.5 592 212 593.75 212.5 585 216 585.5 219 594 228.5 597 220.5 607 229.75 603.5 231.5 596.75 241.5 596.75 239 586 245 576 239.5 567.75 238.5 545.5 238 546.5 234 540 223.5 539 Grand Duchy of Hesse

Anhalt

poly 441 349 441 368 468 368 468 364 520 364 520 352.5 468 352.5 468 349 441 349 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 432 373.75 428 374 421 376.5 417 380.5 419 383.75 414.5 385.5 416 387.5 414 390 417.75 396.5 422.5 395.5 423.5 400.5 422 400.5 421.75 398.5 416.5 399 415.5 401.5 411.5 401 413.75 399 414 393.5 412 393 409 395.5 408.5 398.5 406.75 393.5 402.5 392.5 400 395 396 393.5 393.75 394.5 391.5 393 390.5 392 388 395.5 388 399.75 389.75 400 389 401.75 391 403.5 388 403.5 387.75 405.5 391.5 411 393.75 410.75 395.5 406.5 398 407 402.5 406 410 414 412 413 413 414.5 420 415.5 426 411 424.75 409 427 408.5 429.5 412.5 436 410.5 435 402.5 441.5 402.75 447 399.75 445.5 397 450.5 385.5 447 384.5 443.75 380.75 438.5 380 436 375 432 373.75 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 409.5 378 407.5 380 410 382.5 411.75 379.75 409.5 378 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 373.5 381 372.75 384 378 385.5 378.5 381 373.5 381 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 414 382 410 383 410 385 414.75 384 414 382 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 402 383 401.75 385 400 384.5 398.75 386 399.5 387 399 388.5 401 389 401 387.5 402.75 388 405.5 387 405 384.5 403.75 385 403.5 383 402 383 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 352.5 393 350.75 397.75 351 402 344.75 406 337 398 336.5 408 333 411 335.75 413 335 417.75 337 416 340 418 339.5 414 343.5 410.5 342.5 408 348.75 409 347.75 411.5 355.75 414.75 360.75 414.5 366.5 417.5 370 414.75 373 415.75 371.5 409.75 377.5 405 378 403 379.75 404.5 382.75 402 380.5 398 373 399 372 403 368 403 361.75 409.5 358 405.75 361.5 401 363 394.75 352.5 393 Duchy of Anhalt

poly 378.5 412.75 373.75 415.75 378 416.5 378.5 412.75 Duchy of Anhalt

Waldeck-Pyrmont

poly 262.75 372.5 261 376.5 265.75 374.75 267.75 377.5 264.5 381 266 381.5 266.5 381.5 271.75 379.5 268 373 262.75 372.5 Waldeck (state)

poly 249 418 241.5 420.75 245 428 239 429 230 429.5 222 436 224 440 230 437.5 233 446 228 451.5 234 452.75 239.75 440 246 443.5 242 452 250.75 460.75 260.5 446.5 256.5 447.75 252.75 441.5 252.75 418.75 249 418 Waldeck (state)

poly 146 427.75 146 433 116.5 433 116.5 451.75 146 451.75 146 460 210.75 460 210.75 427.75 146 427.75 Waldeck (state)

Brunswick

poly 389 315 389 333.75 417 333.75 417 330.75 496 330.75 496 318 417 318 417 315 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 355.75 330.5 354.5 332 352.75 332.75 350 339 352.5 340.75 353.75 339.5 353 345 356.5 343.5 358.5 343.5 356 345 356.5 346.75 355.5 347.5 362 354.5 359.5 355 355 354.75 351.5 351.75 352 349.5 345.75 345.75 343 348 340.5 348 338 350.5 338.5 347.5 336.5 346.75 334.75 348 335.5 349 332.5 349.5 331.5 347.5 333.5 345 332.5 344 330 345 329.5 347 327 348 328 345.75 325.5 345 322 348.5 322.75 350 326.5 349 327 350.5 325.5 352 324.5 356.5 326 357.75 325 358.5 325.5 359.75 327.5 360 327 361.5 325 361 323 359.5 322 360 322 362.75 321 363 319 362.5 317 365 320 370.5 320.5 370.5 323.75 368.75 329 372 335.75 369.75 336 368 337.75 368 338 374 340 374 342.5 376.5 347.5 375.5 347.5 371 348.75 371.5 348 375.5 349 376.5 349 377 346.5 377.75 348 379.5 352.75 380 353 377.5 351.75 376 355.75 375 359.75 375.5 359.75 379 361.5 379 361.5 375.75 360.75 375.5 361 372.75 359.75 372 360 371 361.5 371 365 369 366 364.75 364.5 364.75 363.75 362.75 365 361.5 367.5 360 367 357 366 357 365 355.5 364 355 365 354 364.75 352 363.5 350 367 349 367.5 347 360.5 339.5 360.75 332.5 355.75 330.5 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 380 339 378 340.5 376.5 345 380 352 381 351.75 380 349.75 381 349 383 352 386.5 350 386 348.75 389 350 389 347.5 384.5 345 385.75 345 385.5 343 384 343 382 340.5 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 279.5 364.5 276 367.75 281 371.75 280.5 373 279 372.75 276.75 376 269.5 375.5 271.75 379.5 270.5 380 272 381 274 382 276 386 273 391 272 392 272 394 270 397.5 271 400 271 402.75 272 403 278.5 399.75 279.5 396 286.75 390.5 288.5 390 290 386.5 293.5 387.75 295 389.5 298 389.75 299.5 389 302.75 392 301 395 301.5 396 303 395 304 396 306 395 306 392.5 310.5 391 310.5 390 312 390 311.5 390.75 315.5 398 318 399 318.5 398 319.5 397.5 319.75 395 318 394.75 317.75 392 318.75 391 318.5 388.5 320.5 385 322 386 322.5 388 325.75 388.75 328.75 384.5 323.5 380 319.5 379.5 321.75 376 325.5 377.5 326.5 377 326.5 374.5 324.5 375.5 321 374.75 320.75 373 318 375 317 374.5 318 373 314 371 313.5 372 315 376 313.75 382 314.75 385 312.5 387 312 384.75 307.75 381 306.75 382 307.5 383.75 304 385 303 383 299.5 383.5 293.5 378 294.5 375.75 292.75 373.75 288.5 379 285.5 377 280.5 367.5 280.75 365.5 279.5 364.5 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 306 371 305.5 371.5 307 376 309.75 375 309.5 372.5 307.75 373 306 371 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 340 384.5 333 385.5 329.5 390 330.75 391.5 333.5 392 334 394.5 338 394 341.5 389.75 341.75 387.5 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 129 1231 133.75 1220.5 140 1216.5 142.5 1217 149 1211.5 148 1207.5 148.5 1203.5 146 1202 140 1205.5 136 1203.75 132.5 1199.5 130.75 1200.75 129 1215 122 1218.75 124.5 1229.5 Duchy of Brunswick

poly 263 288.5 258.5 290.75 256 295 254 293.5 253 290.5 255.5 289.5 256 284 257 283.75 259 286 262.5 284.75 Duchy of Brunswick

Lippe

poly 249 356.75 245.5 364.5 237 362.5 229 379 234.5 381 240 392.75 256 384 262.5 387.5 269 387.75 270 381.75 261 381 260.75 377.5 263 371.5 260.5 362.5 253 362 255.5 357.75 Principality of Lippe

poly 147 385 147 403.5 219 403.5 219 387 174.5 387 174.5 385 Principality of Lippe

Schaumburg-Lippe

poly 276 329 269 331.75 269 335.75 253 343 251 349 261 356.75 259.5 350.75 264 348 264.5 351.5 268.5 350.75 270 342.5 266 338.75 272.5 338.75 278 334 276 329 Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe

poly 49.75 345 49.75 364 78 364 78 364 224 364 224 346 78 346 78 345 49.75 345 Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe

Hamburg

poly 235 196.75 232 198 231.75 200.5 235 198.5 Hamburg

poly 238 200.5 237 201.75 237.75 203 239.5 202 Hamburg

poly 247 204 241 209 240 211 247.5 213.75 247 210 245 211 245 208.75 247 208.75 247 209.75 250 207.5 Hamburg

poly 317 221 318 225 318.5 223 Hamburg

poly 325.5 223.75 322 224 324 227 Hamburg

poly 316 227 315.5 232.75 314 234 315.5 235 314 237 312.5 237 312 239.5 311.5 239.75 312.75 240 309.75 240.75 310 240.75 310.5 242 318.5 242.75 317.5 247 323 254 327 255 332 251 327.5 245.5 323.5 243.5 321 240 323 238 320.5 238 319 234 320 233 318.5 231.75 319 227.5 316 227 Hamburg

poly 333 227.5 329 228.75 330 232 332 231.75 Hamburg

poly 324 228 323 230.75 326 231.75 326 229.5 Hamburg

poly 322 231 323 232 320.5 233 322 235 324 231.75 Hamburg

poly 309.75 243.75 309 245 312 246 314 244 Hamburg

poly 335 250 333 250.5 333.5 252.5 335.5 253 337 251.75 Hamburg

poly 280 1069.75 291 1071 296.5 1075.5 302.5 1074 302 1071.5 307 1075 311.75 1073.5 317 1079 313.5 1084.5 314 1092 321 1096.5 325 1104 329 1106 334.5 1112 344 1112 346.75 1107.75 357 1103.75 357 1098.5 353.75 1099 345.75 1087 345.75 1085 342.5 1082.75 340 1084.75 335 1079 332.5 1079 325 1068 329 1061 323 1060.5 321 1062.75 319 1060 321.75 1056.75 317 1050.5 320 1047 319 1043 315.5 1043 314.75 1041 316.75 1039.5 317 1030 310.5 1030 308.5 1032.75 307.5 1038.75 306 1039.5 307.5 1044 306.75 1047.5 303.75 1050 306.75 1051.5 306.75 1053 302.75 1057.75 299 1058 299 1059.5 300.5 1061.5 297.5 1064 297 1065 299 1066 299 1067.75 281.5 1067.75 Hamburg

poly 362 1105 366.75 1106 370.75 1102.75 367 1098.5 362.5 1100 Hamburg

poly 291 1078.5 300.5 1078.5 302 1081.5 297.75 1084 288.75 1081.5 290.75 1080 Hamburg

poly 329 1040 332 1042 328.5 1049.5 329 1050 328.5 1051.5 325 1051.75 323 1048.75 324 1045 329 1043.5 327 1041.5 Hamburg

poly 333.5 1032 331 1039 334 1041.5 335 1041 339 1042.5 339.75 1041 339 1039.5 340 1037.5 337.5 1034 Hamburg

poly 332 1028.5 335 1026.5 336 1022.5 338 1021 336 1018 331 1018 328 1021 329 1026 Hamburg

poly 351 1033.5 350 1036 351 1043 357 1042 357 1038 359.5 1035 358.5 1033.5 360 1031.5 359 1030 354 1032 354.5 1034 Hamburg

poly 83.75 976.5 86.75 977.5 86 982.5 96.5 984 97 983 97 979 95.75 978 96.5 971.5 99.75 973 100 970.5 102.75 971 102.5 975.5 104.5 975.5 106.5 972 111.75 975 115 979 117 978 103.75 964.5 105 961 102 961 94.75 963.5 90 967 87 971 Hamburg

poly 100 980 101.5 979 103 981.5 101.5 981.75 101.75 983.5 102.75 984.5 102.75 986.75 100 986.5 Hamburg

poly 75.5 948.75 77.5 951.75 79 952 78.75 953.5 75 956.5 72 953 73 950 Hamburg

poly 67 940 64.5 941 64.5 943.75 60 946 57 949 56 945.5 58 940.5 61 938.5 65 937.5 67 939 Hamburg

rect 189 1091 217 1110 Hamburg

rect 214 1094 291 1109 Hamburg

Luebeck

poly 362 203.75 360.5 207.5 357 208.75 354 208 353 209 350.75 208 347 210.75 347 210.75 349 214.5 345.75 216 349 221.5 351 219 353 220.5 357 217.75 357 214.75 363.5 210 363.75 204 362 203.75 Free City of Lübeck

poly 350 204 348 205 347.5 208 350.5 207 350 204 Free City of Lübeck

poly 357.75 218 357.75 222.75 359.5 222 360 218.75 357.75 218 Free City of Lübeck

poly 347 223 346 225.75 348 226.5 350 224 347 223 Free City of Lübeck

poly 352 225 349.5 228 354 230.75 355.5 228 354.75 225.5 353.75 228 352 225 Free City of Lübeck

poly 347 228.75 344 231 345.5 232.5 345 234.5 346 234.75 346 233 347 232 348 234.5 348.75 232 349 230.5 349 230.5 349 229 347 228.75 Free City of Lübeck

poly 343 235 343 236.5 345 239 347 237 343 235 Free City of Lübeck

poly 348 238 346.5 240 349 240.75 350 238.75 348 238 Free City of Lübeck

poly 451.5 958 448 958 446 959.75 444 964.75 444.5 965.5 444 967 440.5 968.5 440 970 435.5 970.5 434.5 971.75 431.5 971 429 972.75 427.5 971 425.75 972 425 970 423 970 423 971.75 421 973.75 420.5 973 418.75 974.5 418 973 415 972.5 413.5 971 409.75 973 405 973.75 404 976.75 401.5 978 402 981.75 404.75 983 405 985 403.75 985.5 405 989 407.5 989 407.5 991 404 991 402.75 992.75 399 993 399 998 402 1001 403 1000 404.75 1002.5 403 1005 403 1007 408 1011.5 412 1011 413 1005.5 414.75 1005 419.5 1008.5 426 1004 427 1003 425 998 428 999.5 429.5 1002 434 1000 433 998 430.5 994 433.5 988 437 988 439 986.5 434.5 983 435.75 982 442.5 982 443 982.75 446 981.5 449 977.75 450.5 977.5 449.5 970.5 453 965.75 453.5 961 451.5 958 Free City of Lübeck

poly 440 1003 435 1003.75 434 1012 434.75 1013.75 440 1012.75 440.5 1010.5 441 1006 440 1003 Free City of Lübeck

poly 402.5 1016.75 400.5 1020 400.75 1024 404.5 1025.75 410.5 1021.5 408 1018 406 1018 402.5 1016.75 Free City of Lübeck

poly 418.5 1023 414.5 1024 413.5 1026 410.5 1030.75 412 1033.5 418.75 1036 420 1038 424 1039 427 1035 428 1030.75 426 1024.75 424 1025.5 423 1029.5 421.75 1031 420 1027.5 418 1027 420 1024.75 418.5 1023 Free City of Lübeck

poly 402 1034 399 1034.5 397.75 1036 396 1036 394 1041.75 398.75 1044 398 1046.75 398.75 1051 400 1050.5 399.5 1048.5 400.5 1047 402 1046 403 1048 404 1051 404 1051 405.75 1048 406.75 1048 406 1047.5 406.5 1045 406 1045 406 1043 407 1043 407 1039 407.5 1039 405.75 1038 404.75 1035 402 1034 Free City of Lübeck

poly 393 1053.5 390.5 1056 391 1059.5 393 1060 395 1062.75 399 1062.75 401 1059 401 1057 394 1056 393 1053.5 Free City of Lübeck

poly 406.75 1062.5 404 1063.5 401.75 1067.5 405 1069.5 409.5 1070 410.5 1063.5 406.75 1062.5 Free City of Lübeck

poly 398.5 964.75 394 962 393.5 964.5 394.5 969 396 971.5 398.75 968.75 397 966.75 Free City of Lübeck

poly 402.75 963.75 404 964.5 402 968 403.5 970 403 971 405.5 971.5 406 970.75 411 969.75 412.5 964 413 963.75 412.75 962 413 961.5 412 959.75 408.75 961.5 405 960.75 Free City of Lübeck

poly 417 960 416.5 962.75 417.75 964.5 420.75 963 419.75 961.5 420 959.75 Free City of Lübeck

rect 285 978 313 996 Free City of Lübeck

rect 312 980 372 993 Free City of Lübeck

Bremen

poly 237 230 239 237 240.5 235.5 239.5 230.5 237 230 Bremen (state)

poly 239.5 268.75 239.5 272.5 243.75 278 243.5 282.5 247 280.75 250.5 284 253.5 279 255.75 281.5 257.5 280 257 272.75 253.5 274 251 272 246.5 271 244.5 268.75 239.5 268.75 Bremen (state)

poly 74 1153 80 1158 79 1164 85 1173 87 1178.5 92 1180.5 93 1186 92.5 1192 97 1195 99 1190 102 1189.75 104 1194 111 1198.5 115 1197 120.5 1185 126 1187.5 125 1190 130 1191 134 1188 134 1184 136 1182.5 133.5 1178 136 1173 131 1165.5 124 1170 120 1170 116 1167 115 1163 103.5 1160.5 98 1158 95 1155 84.5 1153.5 Bremen (state)

poly 77 1059.75 81 1059.5 81 1051.5 78 1047 78.5 1042 75 1040 74 1043 76 1049 79 1053.5 79 1058 78 1058 Bremen (state)

rect 166 1169 194 1188 Bremen (state)

rect 191 1172 256 1186 Bremen (state)

Oldenburg

poly 348.75 180 346 184.5 344 184.75 346 190 342.5 191 341.75 189.75 339.75 193.5 341.75 195.5 344.5 194.75 347 195.5 346 199 344 199 341 201 344.5 203 344.5 208.5 347 210.75 350.75 208 353 209 354 208 357 208.75 360.5 207.5 362 203.75 359 203 357 198.5 358 196.75 356 195.75 355.75 193.5 358.5 191.5 357 190.5 355 191.5 353 186.5 354 183.5 352 180.75 348.75 180 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 350 204 350.5 207 347.5 208 348 205 350 204 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 203 211 203.75 212.5 209.5 212.5 208 211 203 211 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 217.5 215 216 216 216 218 220.5 216.5 220 215.5 217.5 215 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 201 218 202.5 226 200 232 201 234.5 204 232.75 209.75 234.5 208 239.75 202.5 245 203.5 249.5 199 254.75 191 260.75 190 263.5 188 263 186.5 268 155 268 155 266 128 266 128 282.5 155 282.5 155 281 194 281 195.5 285 192.75 291 188 293 187 295.5 188.75 297.75 188 300.75 184 302.5 185.75 307.75 190.5 308 194 305.75 198.5 308.75 201 307.75 206 312 205.75 316.5 203.75 318 203 321.75 205 325 207 324.5 211.5 327 218 327 219 310.75 228 305 227.75 300.75 229.75 297.5 230 288.75 235 284 236 284.5 240 281 243 282.75 243.5 282.5 243.75 278 239.5 272.5 239.5 268.75 236.5 268.5 232 263 235 252 235 243.75 237.5 246 239 237 230.5 232 226.5 227.5 222 229.75 221.5 235.75 225.5 235.5 224.75 241.75 221.5 246.75 219 246 215.75 241 213 243 212 236.75 216.5 236.5 215.5 229.75 211.5 223 211.75 218 201 218 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 143.5 556 123 570.5 119 585.5 133 583.75 131.5 578.75 139 572 142 574 142 566.5 149.75 567 143.5 556 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 408 887.5 402.75 889.75 402 894 401 898 399.5 900 398 899.5 395 900 394 901 393.5 903 394.5 906.5 397 910 396.5 911 399 914.5 400.75 915 399 917 398 916 395 916 392.5 917.75 391 921 389.5 920.5 386 917 385.5 917 384 919.5 382.5 920.5 384 923.5 381.5 925.5 381.5 928 386 933.5 392 934 394.5 931 397.5 932 402 933 402 935.75 399.5 940 400 942.75 398.5 944.5 394 943.5 389 946 385 950 384.5 951.5 386.5 952.5 389 952 391.5 954.75 396 955.5 396 957 394.5 958 394 960 395.75 963 398.5 964.75 397 966.75 398.75 968.75 396 971.5 395.5 970.75 396 973.5 397.75 976 400 976.5 401.5 978 404 976.75 405 973.75 409.75 973 413.5 971 415 972.5 418 973 418.75 974.5 420.5 973 421 973.75 423 971.75 423 970 425 970 425.75 972 427.5 971 429 972.75 431.5 971 434.5 971.75 435.5 970.5 440 970 440.5 968.5 444 967 444.5 965.5 443.75 964.75 446 959.75 448 958 437.75 956 432 946 433 940 434.5 939 433.75 936 429.5 934.5 430 931.75 428 928.75 428.75 927.75 431 927.75 432 926.5 435 924.5 435.75 921.5 433 920 432 918 430.5 919 429 921 427 921.75 425.75 919.5 425.75 913.75 423 911.5 423 909.5 421.75 907 422 904 424 901 424 898.5 420.75 893.5 420 893.5 419.5 891.75 415.75 890.5 415 889.5 410 888.5 408 887.5 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

poly 412 959.75 413 961.5 412.75 962 413 963.75 412.5 964 411 969.75 406 970.75 405.5 971.5 403 971 403.5 970 402 968 404 964.5 402.75 963.75 405 960.75 408.75 961.5 412 959.75 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

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poly 324 484 319.5 489.5 319 493 324 498.75 325 505 327 508.5 333 505.5 336 511 334 513.75 342.5 518.5 344.5 514 347.5 512.75 349 505.5 346.5 500.75 340 499 339 502 336 499 338 496.75 332 492.5 329 485 Kingdom of Prussia

poly 391 499 389.5 501.75 386 500 383.5 505 384 512.5 391 516 396 508.5 Kingdom of Prussia

poly 201.5 687.5 202 693 209.5 695 210.75 698.5 222 703 227.5 701 233 708.5 227.5 714.75 238 732 232.5 731 232.5 739 228 737.75 223.75 740.5 232 744 238 734 247 739.5 251 732.75 243 731.75 243 699.5 Kingdom of Prussia</imagemap>


State		Capital
Kingdoms (Königreiche)
	Prussia (Preußen) as a whole	Berlin
	Bavaria (Bayern)	Munich
	Saxony (Sachsen)	Dresden
	Württemberg	Stuttgart
Grand Duchies (Großherzogtümer)
	Baden	Karlsruhe
	Hesse (Hessen)	Darmstadt
	Mecklenburg-Schwerin	Schwerin
	Mecklenburg-Strelitz	Neustrelitz
	Oldenburg	Oldenburg
	Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach)	Weimar
Duchies (Herzogtümer)
	Anhalt	Dessau
	Brunswick (Braunschweig)	Braunschweig
	Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg)	Altenburg
	Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha)	Coburg
	Saxe-Meiningen (Sachsen-Meiningen)	Meiningen
Principalities (Fürstentümer)
	Lippe	Detmold
	Reuss-Gera (Junior Line)	Gera
	Reuss-Greiz (Elder Line)	Greiz
	Schaumburg-Lippe	Bückeburg
	Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt	Rudolstadt
	Schwarzburg-Sondershausen	Sondershausen
	Waldeck and Pyrmont (Waldeck und Pyrmont)	Arolsen
Free and Hanseatic Cities (Freie und Hansestädte)
	Bremen
	Hamburg
	Lübeck
Imperial Territories (Reichsländer)
	Alsace–Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen)	Straßburg

Other maps

Administrative map
Population density (c. 1885)
Election constituencies for the Reichstag
Detailed map in 1893 with cities and larger towns

Demographics

About 92% of the population spoke German as their first language. The only minority language with a significant number of speakers (5.4%) was Polish (a figure that rises to over 6% when including the related Kashubian and Masurian languages).

The non-German Germanic languages (0.5%), like Danish, Dutch and Frisian, were located in the north and northwest of the empire, near the borders with Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg. Low German was spoken throughout northern Germany and, though linguistically as distinct from High German (Hochdeutsch) as from Dutch and English, was considered "German", hence also its name. Danish and Frisian were spoken predominantly in the north of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein and Dutch in the western border areas of Prussia (Hanover, Westphalia, and the Rhine Province).

Polish and other West Slavic languages (6.28%) were spoken chiefly in the east.^[c]

A few (0.5%) spoke French, the vast majority of these in the Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen where francophones formed 11.6% of the total population.

1900 census results

Native languages of the citizens of the German Empire
(1 December 1900)^[121]
language	Count	Percentage
German^[122]	51,883,131	92.05
German and a foreign language	252,918	0.45
Polish	3,086,489	5.48
French	211,679	0.38
Masurian	142,049	0.25
Danish	141,061	0.25
Lithuanian	106,305	0.19
Kashubian	100,213	0.18
Wendish (Sorbian)	93,032	0.16
Dutch	80,361	0.14
Italian	65,930	0.12
Moravian (Czech)	64,382	0.11
Czech	43,016	0.08
Frisian	20,677	0.04
English	20,217	0.04
Russian	9,617	0.02
Swedish	8,998	0.02
Hungarian	8,158	0.01
Spanish	2,059	0.00
Portuguese	479	0.00
Other foreign languages	14,535	0.03
Imperial citizens	56,367,187	100

Linguistic maps

Immigration

In the 1860s, Russia removed privileges for German emigrants and placed pressure on German immigrants to assimilate. The majority of German emigrants left Russia after the turn of the century. Some of these ethnic Germans immigrated to Germany.^[123]

Religion

Generally, religious demographics of the early modern period hardly changed. Still, there were almost entirely Catholic areas (Lower and Upper Bavaria, northern Westphalia, Upper Silesia, etc.) and almost entirely Protestant areas (Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Saxony, etc.). Confessional prejudices, especially towards mixed marriages, were still common. Bit by bit, through internal migration, religious blending was more and more common. In eastern territories, confession was almost uniquely perceived to be connected to one's ethnicity and the equation "Protestant = German, Catholic = Polish" was held to be valid. In areas affected by immigration in the Ruhr area and Westphalia, as well as in some large cities, religious landscape changed substantially. This was especially true in largely Catholic areas of Westphalia, which changed through Protestant immigration from the eastern provinces.

Politically, the confessional division of Germany had considerable consequences. In Catholic areas, the Centre Party had a big electorate. On the other hand, Social Democrats and Free Trade Unions usually received hardly any votes in the Catholic areas of the Ruhr. This began to change with the secularization arising in the last decades of the German Empire.

Religious confessions in the German Empire 1880
Area	Protestant		Catholic		Other Christian		Jewish		Other
Area	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Prussia	17,633,279	64.64	9,206,283	33.75	52,225	0.19	363,790	1.33	23,534	0.09
Bavaria	1,477,952	27.97	3,748,253	70.93	5,017	0.09	53,526	1.01	30	0.00
Saxony	2,886,806	97.11	74,333	2.50	4,809	0.16	6,518	0.22	339	0.01
Württemberg	1,364,580	69.23	590,290	29.95	2,817	0.14	13,331	0.68	100	0.01
Baden	547,461	34.86	993,109	63.25	2,280	0.15	27,278	1.74	126	0.01
Alsace-Lorraine	305,315	19.49	1,218,513	77.78	3,053	0.19	39,278	2.51	511	0.03
Total	28,331,152	62.63	16,232,651	35.89	78,031	0.17	561,612	1.24	30,615	0.07

In Germany's overseas colonial empire, millions of subjects practiced various indigenous religions in addition to Christianity. Over two million Muslims also lived under German colonial rule, primarily in German East Africa.^[124]

Distribution of Protestants and Catholics in Imperial Germany
Distribution of Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Imperial Germany (Meyers Konversationslexikon)
Distribution of Jews in Imperial Germany

Coat of arms

Legacy

The defeat and aftermath of the First World War and the penalties imposed by the Treaty of Versailles shaped the positive memory of the Empire, especially among Germans who distrusted and despised the Weimar Republic. Conservatives, liberals, socialists, nationalists, Catholics and Protestants all had their own interpretations, which led to a fractious political and social climate in Germany in the aftermath of the empire's collapse.

Under Bismarck, a united German state had finally been achieved, but it remained a Prussian-dominated state and did not include German Austria as Pan-German nationalists had desired. The influence of Prussian militarism, the Empire's colonial efforts and its vigorous, competitive industrial prowess all gained it the dislike and envy of other nations. The German Empire enacted a number of progressive reforms, such as Europe's first social welfare system and freedom of press. There was also a modern system for electing the federal parliament, the Reichstag, in which every adult man had one vote. This enabled the Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre Party to play considerable roles in the empire's political life despite the continued hostility of Prussian aristocrats.

The era of the German Empire is well remembered in Germany as one of great cultural and intellectual vigour. Thomas Mann published his novel Buddenbrooks in 1901. Theodor Mommsen received the Nobel prize for literature a year later for his Roman history. Painters like the groups Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke made a significant contribution to modern art. The AEG turbine factory in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 was a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism. The social, economic, and scientific successes of this Gründerzeit, or founding epoch, have sometimes led the Wilhelmine era to be regarded as a golden age.

In the field of economics, the "Kaiserzeit" laid the foundation of Germany's status as one of the world's leading economic powers. The iron and coal industries of the Ruhr, the Saar and Upper Silesia especially contributed to that process. The first motorcar was built by Karl Benz in 1886. The enormous growth of industrial production and industrial potential also led to a rapid urbanisation of Germany, which turned the Germans into a nation of city dwellers. More than 5 million people left Germany for the United States during the 19th century.^[125]

Sonderweg

Many historians have emphasized the central importance of a German Sonderweg or "special path" (or "exceptionalism") as the root of Nazism and the German catastrophe in the 20th century. According to the historiography by Kocka (1988), the process of nation-building from above had very grievous long-term implications. In terms of parliamentary democracy, Parliament was kept weak, the parties were fragmented, and there was a high level of mutual distrust. The Nazis built on the illiberal, anti-pluralist elements of Weimar's political culture. The Junker elites (the large landowners in the east) and senior civil servants used their great power and influence well into the twentieth century to frustrate any movement toward democracy. They played an especially negative role in the crisis of 1930–1933. Bismarck's emphasis on military force amplified the voice of the officer corps, which combined advanced modernisation of military technology with reactionary politics. The rising upper-middle-class elites, in the business, financial and professional worlds, tended to accept the values of the old traditional elites. The German Empire was for Hans-Ulrich Wehler a strange mixture of highly successful capitalist industrialisation and socio-economic modernisation on the one hand, and of surviving pre-industrial institutions, power relations and traditional cultures on the other. Wehler argues that it produced a high degree of internal tension, which led on the one hand to the suppression of socialists, Catholics and reformers, and on the other hand to a highly aggressive foreign policy. For these reasons Fritz Fischer and his students emphasised Germany's primary guilt for causing the First World War.^[126]

Hans-Ulrich Wehler, a leader of the Bielefeld School of social history, places the origins of Germany's path to disaster in the 1860s–1870s, when economic modernisation took place, but political modernisation did not happen and the old Prussian rural elite remained in firm control of the army, diplomacy and the civil service. Traditional, aristocratic, premodern society battled an emerging capitalist, bourgeois, modernising society. Recognising the importance of modernising forces in industry and the economy and in the cultural realm, Wehler argues that reactionary traditionalism dominated the political hierarchy of power in Germany, as well as social mentalities and in class relations (Klassenhabitus). The catastrophic German politics between 1914 and 1945 are interpreted in terms of a delayed modernisation of its political structures. At the core of Wehler's interpretation is his treatment of "the middle class" and "revolution", each of which was instrumental in shaping the 20th century. Wehler's examination of Nazi rule is shaped by his concept of "charismatic domination", which focuses heavily on Hitler.^[127]

The historiographical concept of a German Sonderweg has had a turbulent history. 19th-century scholars who emphasised a separate German path to modernity saw it as a positive factor that differentiated Germany from the "western path" typified by Great Britain. They stressed the strong bureaucratic state, reforms initiated by Bismarck and other strong leaders, the Prussian service ethos, the high culture of philosophy and music, and Germany's pioneering of a social welfare state. In the 1950s, historians in West Germany argued that the Sonderweg led Germany to the disaster of 1933–1945. The special circumstances of German historical structures and experiences, were interpreted as preconditions that, while not directly causing National Socialism, did hamper the development of a liberal democracy and facilitate the rise of fascism. The Sonderweg paradigm has provided the impetus for at least three strands of research in German historiography: the "long 19th century", the history of the bourgeoisie, and comparisons with the West. After 1990, increased attention to cultural dimensions and to comparative and relational history moved German historiography to different topics, with much less attention paid to the Sonderweg. While some historians have abandoned the Sonderweg thesis, they have not provided a generally accepted alternative interpretation.^[128]

Military

The Empire of Germany had two armed forces:

the Imperial German Army, which included
- Schutztruppe,
- Polizeitruppen,
- Imperial German Air Service, and
the Imperial German Navy,
- Seebataillon.

Territorial legacy

In addition to present-day Germany, large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries.

When lost from Germany	Name	Country	Region
Both World Wars	Alsace-Lorraine	France	The departments of Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin (both within Alsace region) and Moselle (northeastern part of the Lorraine region)
Both World Wars	Eupen-Malmedy	Belgium	The two towns of Eupen and Malmedy and the municipalities of Amel, Büllingen, Burg-Reuland, Bütgenbach, Kelmis, Lontzen, Raeren, Waimes and St. Vith (all are parts of Liège Province in the Wallonia region on the Belgian–German border)
World War II	Wylerberg	Netherlands	Duivelsberg (‹See Tfd›German: Wylerberg), an uninhabited hill and some nearby slivers of land, annexed by the Netherlands after WWII
World War I	Northern Schleswig	Denmark	South Jutland County (excluding towns of Taps, Hejle and Vejstrup), and the towns of Hviding, Roager and Spandet
Both World Wars	Hultschin Region	Czech Republic	Hlučín Region, on the Czech–Polish border in Silesia, whose German population was partially deported following WWII; part of Czechoslovakia until its dissolution in 1992
Both World Wars	Memel Territory	Lithuania	Klaipėda Region, annexed by Lithuania in 1923, retaken by Nazi Germany in 1939, from which Germans were deported following WWII by the Soviet authorities; now part of independent Lithuania since 1990
Both World Wars	Most of West Prussia and Posen, a part of Upper Silesia, parts of the districts of Bütow, Lauenburg and Stolp in Pomerania,^[129] Soldau in East Prussia	Poland	Silesian, Pomeranian and Greater Poland Voivodeships, the towns of Bytów, Lębork, Słupsk and Działdowo (the German population was deported following WWII)
World War II	Silesia, East Brandenburg, Warmia, Masuria, southern East Prussia, central and eastern parts of Pomerania	Poland	Northern and western parts of the country, including Pomerania, Silesia, Lubusz Land, Warmia and Masuria, from all of which Germans were deported following WWII
World War II	Northern East Prussia	Russia	The Kaliningrad Oblast exclave on the Baltic, from which Germans were deported following WWII. Transferred to the Russian SFSR and continued as a part of Russia following the collapse of the Soviet Union

Denotes territories lost in World War I

Denotes territories lost in both World Wars

Denotes territories lost in World War II

References

Informational notes

^ Pronounced [ˌdɔʏtʃəs ˈʁaɪç] <phonos file="De-Deutsches Reich.ogg"></phonos>; today often referred to as Deutsches Kaiserreich.
^ ‹See Tfd›German: Zweites Reich
^ The Slavic speakers included Polish, Masurian, Kashubian, Sorbian and Czech were located in the east; Polish mainly in the Prussian provinces of Posen, West Prussia and Silesia (Upper Silesia). Small islands also existed in Recklinghausen (Westphalia) with 13.8% of the population and in the Kreis of Calau (Brandenburg) (5.5%) and in parts of East Prussia and Pomerania. Czech was spoken predominantly in the south of the Silesia, Masurian in the south of East Prussia, Kashubian in the north of West Prussia and Sorbian in the Lusatian regions of Prussia (Brandenburg and Silesia) and the Kingdom of Saxony.^{[citation needed]}

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^ ^82.0 ^82.1 ^82.2 Kurtz, Harold (1970). The Second Reich: Kaiser Wilhelm II and his Germany. McGraw-Hill. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-07-035653-5.
^ Stürmer, Michael (2000). The German Empire: 1870–1918. New York: Random House. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-679-64090-5.
^ ^84.0 ^84.1 Kurtz 1970, 63
^ Isabel V. Hull, The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888–1918 (2004) p. 85
^ Kurtz 1970, 67.
^ ^87.0 ^87.1 Kurtz 1970, 72
^ Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad H. Jarausch, eds. German Professions, 1800–1950 (1990)
^ Kurtz 1970, 76.
^ Matthew Jefferies, Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871–1918 (2003).
^ Kurtz 1970, 56.
^ Lamar Cecil, Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941 (1996) ch 9–13
^ "Wilhelm II (1859–1941)". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
^ Stürmer 2000, p. 91.
^ Louis, Ruanda-Urundi 1884–1919, p. 163
^ ^96.0 ^96.1 ^96.2 ^96.3 Fischer, Ferenc (1 January 2008). "La expansión (1885–1918) del modelo militar alemán y su pervivencia (1919–1933) en América Latina". Revista del CESLA (in español). 11. Uniwersytet Warszawski: 135–160.
^ Mitchell, Nancy. The danger of dreams: German and American imperialism in Latin America (U of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 67
^ ^98.0 ^98.1 Sanhueza, Carlos (2011). "El debate sobre "el embrujamiento alemán" y el papel de la ciencia alemana hacia fines del siglo XIX en Chile" (PDF). Ideas viajeras y sus objetos. El intercambio científico entre Alemania y América austral. Madrid–Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana–Vervuert (in español). pp. 29–40. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2018.
^ ^99.0 ^99.1 Penny, H. Glenn (2017). "Material Connections: German Schools, Things, and Soft Power in Argentina and Chile from the 1880s through the Interwar Period". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 59 (3): 519–549. doi:10.1017/S0010417517000159. S2CID 149372568. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
^ E. Malcolm Carroll, Germany and the great powers, 1866–1914: A study in public opinion and foreign policy (1938) pp 485ff, 830.online Archived 20 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine
^ Matthew S. Seligmann, "'A Barometer of National Confidence': a British Assessment of the Role of Insecurity in the Formulation of German Military Policy before the First World War." English Historical Review 117.471 (2002): 333–55. online Archived 12 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine
^ Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (1978) p. 321
^ Imanuel Geise, German foreign policy 1871–1914 (1976) pp. 121–138.
^ Hermann Kantorowicz, The spirit of British policy and the myth of the encirclement of Germany (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1931).
^ George Macaulay Trevelyan, British history in the 19th century and after 1782–1919 (1937) p. 463.
^ Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (1978) pp. 302–338, 350.
^ Matthew Stibbe (2006). German Anglophobia and the Great War, 1914–1918. Cambridge UP. pp. 176–178. ISBN 978-0521027281.
^ "Schlieffen Plan | German military history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
^ Edwin Hoyt, Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck and Germany's East African Empire (1981)
^ Holger H. Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria–Hungary 1914–1918 (1996)
^ Rod Paschall, The defeat of imperial Germany, 1917–1918 (1994)
^ German Historical Museum. "1914–18: Lebensmittelversorgung" (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 2 November 2000. Retrieved 23 July 2007.
^ Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (2004) p. 141–142
^ A. J. Ryder, The German Revolution of 1918: A Study of German Socialism in War and Revolt (2008)
^ "Bundesrat". deutsche-schutzgebiete.de (in Deutsch). 4 January 2019. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
^ ^116.0 ^116.1 ^116.2 Constitution of the German Empire – via Wikisource.
^ Haardt, Oliver F. R. (2020). "Der Bundesrat in Verfassung und Wirklichkeit" [The Federal Council in the Constitution and Reality]. Orte der Demokratie Geschichte (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
^ ^118.0 ^118.1 ^118.2 "Das Deutsche Kaiserreich 1871–1918: Der föderative Nationalstaat" [The German Empire 1871–1918: The Federal Nation State] (PDF). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in Deutsch). 2016. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
^ "Gesetz zur Abänderung der Reichsverfassung vom 28. Oktober 1918" [Law Amending the Imperial Constitution of 28 October 1918]. documentarchiv.de (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
^ Huber, Ernst Rudolf (1988). Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Band III: Bismarck und das Reich [German Constitutional History since 1789. Volume III: Bismarck and the Reich] (in Deutsch) (3 ed.). Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag. p. 1003.
^ "Fremdsprachige Minderheiten im Deutschen Reich" (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2010.
^ Including Low German
^ Oltmer, Jochen (2006). ""The Unspoilt Nature of German Ethnicity": Immigration and Integration of "Ethnic Germans" in the German Empire and the Weimar Republic". Nationalities Papers. 34 (4): 429–446. doi:10.1080/00905990600841959. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 162220760. Archived from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
^ "The Hitler Legacy: The Nazi Cult in Diaspora" p. 64
^ "A New Surge of Growth Archived 6 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine". Library of Congress.
^ Jürgen Kocka (January 1988). "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German 'Sonderweg'". Journal of Contemporary History. 23 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1177/002200948802300101. JSTOR 260865. S2CID 159651458.
^ Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte: Vom Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges bis zur Gründung der Beiden Deutschen Staaten 1914–1949 (2003) is the fourth volume of his monumental history of German society. None of the series has yet been translated into English. A partial summary appears in Hans-Ulrich Wehler, The German Empire, 1871–1918 (1997)
^ Helmut Walser Smith (May 2008). "When the Sonderweg Debate Left Us". German Studies Review. 31 (2): 225–240.
^ Der Große Brockhaus. 15th edition, vol. 14, Leipzig 1933, p. 741.

External links

Ravenstein's Atlas of the German Empire. Archived 6 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. library.wis.edu.
Administrative subdivision and census results (1900/1910). gemeindeverzeichnis.de (in German).
German Reich map of states 1913 (300 dpi)
Dissemination of the German Language 1913 (map, 300 dpi)
Dissemination of the main foreign mother tongues in the German Reich 1913 (map, 300 dpi)

[15] Pronounced [ˌdɔʏtʃəs ˈʁaɪç] <phonos file="De-Deutsches Reich.ogg"></phonos>; today often referred to as Deutsches Kaiserreich.

[21] ‹See Tfd›German: Zweites Reich

[123] The Slavic speakers included Polish, Masurian, Kashubian, Sorbian and Czech were located in the east; Polish mainly in the Prussian provinces of Posen, West Prussia and Silesia (Upper Silesia). Small islands also existed in Recklinghausen (Westphalia) with 13.8% of the population and in the Kreis of Calau (Brandenburg) (5.5%) and in parts of East Prussia and Pomerania. Czech was spoken predominantly in the south of the Silesia, Masurian in the south of East Prussia, Kashubian in the north of West Prussia and Sorbian in the Lusatian regions of Prussia (Brandenburg and Silesia) and the Kingdom of Saxony.^{[citation needed]}

[1] Seyler, Gustav A.:Die Wappen der deutschen Landesfürsten. Reprograf. Nachdr. von Siebmacher's Wappenbuch 1. Bd., 1. Abt. 2. – 5. Teil (Nürnberg 1909 – 1929)

[2] Preble, George Henry, History of the Flag of the United States of America: With a Chronicle of the Symbols, Standards, Banners, and Flags of Ancient and Modern Nations, 2nd ed, p. 102; A. Williams and co, 1880

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[4] Hansen, Hans Jürgen (1978). Heil Dir im Siegerkranz: die Hymnen der Deutschen. Oldenburg, Hamburg: Stalling. ISBN 3-7979-1950-6.

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[9] Röhl, John C. G. "Kaiser Wilhelm II: A Concise Life" (2014), p. 172–173.

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[78] Richard S. Levy, The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany (Yale University Press, 1975)

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[85] Stürmer, Michael (2000). The German Empire: 1870–1918. New York: Random House. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-679-64090-5.

[Kurtz_1970-86] 84.0 ^84.1 Kurtz 1970, 63

[87] Isabel V. Hull, The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888–1918 (2004) p. 85

[FOOTNOTEKurtz197067-88] Kurtz 1970, 67.

[Kurtz_1970-2-89] 87.0 ^87.1 Kurtz 1970, 72

[90] Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad H. Jarausch, eds. German Professions, 1800–1950 (1990)

[FOOTNOTEKurtz197076-91] Kurtz 1970, 76.

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[FOOTNOTEKurtz197056-93] Kurtz 1970, 56.

[94] Lamar Cecil, Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941 (1996) ch 9–13

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[Fischer2008-98] 96.0 ^96.1 ^96.2 ^96.3 Fischer, Ferenc (1 January 2008). "La expansión (1885–1918) del modelo militar alemán y su pervivencia (1919–1933) en América Latina". Revista del CESLA (in español). 11. Uniwersytet Warszawski: 135–160.

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[Carlos2011-100] 98.0 ^98.1 Sanhueza, Carlos (2011). "El debate sobre "el embrujamiento alemán" y el papel de la ciencia alemana hacia fines del siglo XIX en Chile" (PDF). Ideas viajeras y sus objetos. El intercambio científico entre Alemania y América austral. Madrid–Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana–Vervuert (in español). pp. 29–40. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2018.

[Penny2017-101] 99.0 ^99.1 Penny, H. Glenn (2017). "Material Connections: German Schools, Things, and Soft Power in Argentina and Chile from the 1880s through the Interwar Period". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 59 (3): 519–549. doi:10.1017/S0010417517000159. S2CID 149372568. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2018.

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[103] Matthew S. Seligmann, "'A Barometer of National Confidence': a British Assessment of the Role of Insecurity in the Formulation of German Military Policy before the First World War." English Historical Review 117.471 (2002): 333–55. online Archived 12 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine

[104] Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (1978) p. 321

[105] Imanuel Geise, German foreign policy 1871–1914 (1976) pp. 121–138.

[106] Hermann Kantorowicz, The spirit of British policy and the myth of the encirclement of Germany (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1931).

[107] George Macaulay Trevelyan, British history in the 19th century and after 1782–1919 (1937) p. 463.

[108] Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (1978) pp. 302–338, 350.

[109] Matthew Stibbe (2006). German Anglophobia and the Great War, 1914–1918. Cambridge UP. pp. 176–178. ISBN 978-0521027281.

[110] "Schlieffen Plan | German military history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2021.

[111] Edwin Hoyt, Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck and Germany's East African Empire (1981)

[112] Holger H. Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria–Hungary 1914–1918 (1996)

[113] Rod Paschall, The defeat of imperial Germany, 1917–1918 (1994)

[114] German Historical Museum. "1914–18: Lebensmittelversorgung" (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 2 November 2000. Retrieved 23 July 2007.

[115] Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (2004) p. 141–142

[116] A. J. Ryder, The German Revolution of 1918: A Study of German Socialism in War and Revolt (2008)

[117] "Bundesrat". deutsche-schutzgebiete.de (in Deutsch). 4 January 2019. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.

[Constitution_of_the_German_Empire-118] 116.0 ^116.1 ^116.2 Constitution of the German Empire – via Wikisource.

[119] Haardt, Oliver F. R. (2020). "Der Bundesrat in Verfassung und Wirklichkeit" [The Federal Council in the Constitution and Reality]. Orte der Demokratie Geschichte (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.

[Bundeszentrale_für_politische_Bildung-2016-120] 118.0 ^118.1 ^118.2 "Das Deutsche Kaiserreich 1871–1918: Der föderative Nationalstaat" [The German Empire 1871–1918: The Federal Nation State] (PDF). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in Deutsch). 2016. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.

[121] "Gesetz zur Abänderung der Reichsverfassung vom 28. Oktober 1918" [Law Amending the Imperial Constitution of 28 October 1918]. documentarchiv.de (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2023.

[122] Huber, Ernst Rudolf (1988). Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Band III: Bismarck und das Reich [German Constitutional History since 1789. Volume III: Bismarck and the Reich] (in Deutsch) (3 ed.). Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag. p. 1003.

[124] "Fremdsprachige Minderheiten im Deutschen Reich" (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2010.

[125] Including Low German

[126] Oltmer, Jochen (2006). ""The Unspoilt Nature of German Ethnicity": Immigration and Integration of "Ethnic Germans" in the German Empire and the Weimar Republic". Nationalities Papers. 34 (4): 429–446. doi:10.1080/00905990600841959. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 162220760. Archived from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.

[127] "The Hitler Legacy: The Nazi Cult in Diaspora" p. 64

[128] "A New Surge of Growth Archived 6 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine". Library of Congress.

[129] Jürgen Kocka (January 1988). "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German 'Sonderweg'". Journal of Contemporary History. 23 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1177/002200948802300101. JSTOR 260865. S2CID 159651458.

[130] Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte: Vom Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges bis zur Gründung der Beiden Deutschen Staaten 1914–1949 (2003) is the fourth volume of his monumental history of German society. None of the series has yet been translated into English. A partial summary appears in Hans-Ulrich Wehler, The German Empire, 1871–1918 (1997)

[131] Helmut Walser Smith (May 2008). "When the Sonderweg Debate Left Us". German Studies Review. 31 (2): 225–240.

[Brockhaus_1933-132] Der Große Brockhaus. 15th edition, vol. 14, Leipzig 1933, p. 741.

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v t e States of the German Empire (1871–1918)
Kingdoms	Bavaria Prussia as a whole (Berlin, Brandenburg, East Prussia, Hanover, Hesse-Nassau, Hohenzollern, Pomerania (including the Lauenburg and Bütow Land and the former Starostwo of Draheim), Posen, Rhineland, Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein, Silesia, Westphalia, West Prussia) Saxony Württemberg
Grand Duchies	Baden Hesse-Darmstadt Mecklenburg-Schwerin Mecklenburg-Strelitz Oldenburg Weimar-Eisenach
Duchies	Anhalt Brunswick Altenburg Coburg-Gotha Lauenburg (until 1876) Meiningen
Principalities	Lippe Reuss-Gera (Junior Line) Reuss-Greiz (Elder Line) Schaumburg-Lippe Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Waldeck and Pyrmont
City-states	Bremen Hamburg Lübeck
Imperial Territories	Alsace–Lorraine
Other	German colonial empire Mittelafrika Mitteleuropa

History

Background

Foundation

Bismarck era

Foreign policy

Colonies

Economy

Industrial power

Railways

Consolidation

Social issues

Kulturkampf

Social reform

Antisemitism

Germanisation

Law

Year of the three emperors

Wilhelmine era

Bismarck's resignation

Domestic affairs

Foreign affairs

Colonialism

Middle East

South America

Pre-war Europe

World War I

Origins

Western Front

Eastern Front

Colonies

1918

Home front

Spanish Flu Pandemic

Revolt and demise

Constitution

Constituent states

Map and table

Other maps

Demographics

1900 census results

Linguistic maps

Immigration

Religion

Coat of arms

Legacy

Sonderweg

Military

Territorial legacy

See also

References

Further reading

External links